BIBLE STUDY TEXTBOOK SERIES
EZEKIEL
By
James E. Smith
College Press, Joplin, Missouri
Copyright 1979
College Press
Artwork, unless otherwise indicated, is by
Robert E. Huffman
TO RACHEL SMITH
the wife of my youth
and
the delight of my eyes
PREFACE
The Book of Ezekiel stands in the English Bible fourth among the Major Prophets. It ranks second in actual word count among the prophetic books (39,407 words as compared to Jeremiah's 42,659), and stands third in size in the entire Bible (behind Psalms and Jeremiah). In spite of its size, this book may well be the most neglected of the prophets. Previous surveys have convinced the average Bible student that he cannot possibly understand this material. Ezekiel is regarded as one portion of Scripture with little spiritual value and even less contemporary relevance. Those who do attempt a more serious study of the book often fail to make it past the intricate visionary details of the first chapter. This is most unfortunate. Ezekiel has a vital message for God's people, a message not duplicated elsewhere in the sacred canon.
While Ezekiel virtually has been neglected by the church at large, it has come to be the happy hunting ground of cultists, critics and curiosity mongers. The modern negative critics regard Ezekiel as pivotal in their topsy turvy reconstruction of Old Testament history which views the tripartite priesthood as a scribal concoction from Babylon rather than a divine revelation from Sinai. Ezekiel is cited by self-styled students of prophecy as proof that God's plan for the future includes the modern Zionist movement (Jews returning to Palestine in unbelief), an imminent Russian invasion of Israel, and the reinstitution of the Old Testament animal sacrificial system in a Temple shortly to be constructed in Jerusalem. Science fiction buffs have scoured the Book of Ezekiel in search of spaceships and extra-terrestrial beings who pawned themselves off as God. Mormons regard Ezekiel 37:15-23 as the prophetic allusion to the Book of Mormon (stick of Ephraim) being added to the Bible (stick of Judah). If for no other reason, the Book of Ezekiel merits careful study so that the man of God may be able to silence these modern day empty talkers and deceivers who are upsetting so many families today (Titus 1:10-11). The best defense against a thousand and one errors is the truth.
There is something more positive to be said in favor of diligent study of Ezekiel. The book is full of profound theology, not the least of which is the doctrine of individual responsibility. God's sovereign grace, His absolute holiness and justice, and His universality are presented here as clearly as in any other portion of Scripture. In spite of difficult details, the theme of ultimate victory for God's people is forcefully developed in this prophecy. These mother lode truths, plus priceless nuggets of revelation too numerous to mention will make the serious student of this book spiritually wealthy. Let those who would prospect for this treasure not be discouraged by the exegetical bogs which here and there challenge the resolve as well as the intellect.
Ezekiel invites investigation not only because of what he said, but also because of how he said it. The book is fascinating, replete with visions, allegories, and action parables. Not without reason has Ezekiel been dubbed the audio-visual aids prophet. If a picture is worth a thousand words, then Ezekiel must be regarded as artfully verbose. His prophecy is a gallery of word pictures interspersed with mini-stages upon which the prophet performed divinely inspired monodrama. His delightful antics should draw students to his book in these days even as they attracted observers to his door in his day.
The format of this study guide has followed that of the author's earlier commentaries on Jeremiah-Lamentation (1972) and I & II Kings (1975) in the Bible Textbook Series. Each major section of the book is introduced by a paragraph designed to give an overview of the entire section. This is followed by the author's own translation, at least up to chapter 40. For the tedious blueprint Chapter s 40-48 the American Standard Version of 1901 has been followed with only minor adaptation. Verse by verse comments follow the translation of the individual units of the text.
The material here treated is divided into nineteen Chapter s. A review section has been included at the end of each chapter so that the student may gauge his comprehension of the major points of emphasis.
In preparing this study the author is particularly indebted to the excellent words of Fisch, Blackwood and Plumptre. To condense footnotes as much as possible, a system of abbreviations has been employed. The abbreviations are listed in alphabetical order together with relevant bibliographical information at the end of this volume.
Central Florida Bible College
James E. Smith
August 30, 1978
Chapter One
THE PROPHET AND HIS PROPHECY
The study of a prophetic book is rewarding, but not easy. The serious student must be willing to take time to immerse himself in the historical context which gave birth to the book. He must attempt to walk awhile in the sandals of the prophet who wrote the book to understand his motives and manners, his actions and attitudes. He must come to grips not only with what the book says to and about men, but also with what men have said about the book. All of this takes years of study. But, as the wise one has said, the journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. This first chapter contains an historical, biographical, and literary introduction to the Book of Ezekiel.
I. STEPPING INTO EZEKIEL'S WORLD
Do men make the times, or do the times make the men? That is the age-old question. History is replete with examples of ordinary men catapulted into prominence by circumstances over which they had no control. So it was with Ezekiel. For him the crucial moment came on March 16, 597 B.C. On that day King Jehoiachin opened the gates of Jerusalem to the mighty Nebuchadnezzar. The king and some ten thousand of his subjects including Ezekiel were carried away to Babylon. But for that event and the subsequent prophetic call that came to this priest-in-exile, history probably would not have accorded to Ezekiel so much as a footnote. Therefore, to evaluate the historical context of this man of God, one must look backward and then forward from the crucial date March 16, 597 B.C.
A. Judah Prior to the Deportation of Ezekiel
Ezekiel was born in the eighteenth year of Josiah, 621 B.C. Those were bright and promising days for the tiny Jewish state. The shock of seeing their sister kingdom to the north carried away into the far corners of the Assyrian empire a century earlier had now largely disappeared. Young King Josiah had successfully thrown off the oppressive yoke of those same Assyrians. A vigorous religious reformation led by the prophets Zephaniah and Jeremiah, the priest Hilkiah, and the king himself seemed to be correcting the basic moral and religious flaws of the nation. Visible signs of idolatry had been purged from the land, but, as it turned out, not from the hearts of the people. The heroic efforts of that mighty coalition of crown, priest and prophets proved to be in vain. The reformation came to an abrupt halt and religious retrogression set in when Josiah met his untimely death as a result of the wounds received in the unfortunate and ill-advised battle of Megiddo in 609 B.C.
Josiah's second son Shallum was elevated to the throne by the people of the land. He assumed the throne name of Jehoahaz. At the end of three months Jehoahaz was deposed by Pharaoh Necho who was still encamped at Riblah about two hundred miles from Jerusalem.
Necho placed Eliakim, an older son of Josiah, on the throne of Judah as his vassal. Eliakim ruled under the throne name Jehoiakim. When Necho was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish on the Euphrates (Jeremiah 46:1), Jehoiakim shortly thereafter shifted his allegiance to the Babylonian sovereign. Daniel and several other prominent hostages were sent to Babylon at this time (Daniel 1:1). Jehoiakim served Nebuchadnezzar for three years (2 Kings 24:1), probably the years 604-601 B.C. When the Babylonian king received a setback on the borders of Egypt, Jehoiakim withheld tribute and declared himself to be independent.
To punish the infidelity of his Judaean vassal, Nebuchadnezzar marched against Jerusalem, Jehoiakim died a natural death or was assassinated before the arrival of the Chaldean troops. His son, the eighteen-year-old Jehoiachin, had to face the wrath of Nebuchadnezzar's army. After three months or so of siege, Jehoiachin surrendered himself and his capital. The king and ten thousand of his chief people, Ezekiel among them, were carried away to far-off Babylon.
Nebuchadnezzar installed Mattaniah, another son of Josiah and uncle of the most recently deposed king, on the throne of Judah. His name was changed to Zedekiah (2 Kings 24:10-17).
B. Judah After the Deportation of Ezekiel
One would think that the stroke which fell against Jerusalem in 597 B.C. would have cured the country of its vice and immorality. But such was not the case. The inhabitants of Judah continued to be a rebellious and impudent people (Ezekiel 2:4; Ezekiel 3:7). They refused to walk in the statutes of God (Ezekiel 5:6-7). They had defiled the sanctuary of the Lord with idolatrous paraphernalia (Ezekiel 5:11) and practices (chap. 8). Pagan high places, altars and images were conspicuous upon every high hill, and under every green tree (Ezekiel 6:13). In chapter 22 of Ezekiel the Lord recites against Judah a catalogue of abominations that would make a pagan people blush idolatry, lewdness, oppression, sacrilege and murder permeated all ranks of society. Perhaps Ezekiel 9:9 best summarizes the complete corruption of Jerusalem in its last decade:
The iniquity of the house of Israel and Judah is exceeding great and the land is full of blood, and the city full of perverse ness For they say, The Lord has forsaken the earth, and the Lord does not see.
That Ezekiel in no way exaggerated the corruption back in his native land painfully is attested by Jeremiah who lived through those dark days. In a vision the subjects of King Zedekiah were represented to the mind of this prophet as a basket of rotten figs (Jeremiah 24:8). By intellectual madness and spiritual sophistry the inhabitants of Judah had convinced themselves that they were special favorites of heaven to whom the land of Palestine had been given for a possession (Jeremiah 11:15); that their city was impregnable (Jeremiah 11:3). These delusions were stoked by false prophets. In Zedekiah's fourth year, exactly one year before Ezekiel began his ministry, one of these false prophets dramatically announced in the Temple that God would shatter the yoke of the Babylon within two years (Jeremiah 28:1-4). In vain Jeremiah warned of the imminent overthrow of Jerusalem and the final deportation of its population (Jeremiah 21:7; Jeremiah 24:8-10; Jeremiah 32:3-5; Jeremiah 34:2-3).
Encouraged by the optimistic predictions of his favorite prophets, Zedekiah got involved in a treasonous coalition against Nebuchadnezzar. An embassy from the Kings of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre and Sidon assembled in Jerusalem (Jeremiah 27:3). Unfortunately for Zedekiah, the plot was reported to the great king in Babylon. Zedekiah was required to make a trip to Babylon to set things straight with his overlord (Jeremiah 51:59) and renew his vassal pledge. Five years later Zedekiah reneged on his vassal pledge and openly broke with Babylon (2 Kings 24:20). In this revolt Zedekiah was joined by Tyre and Ammon, and was supported by promises of aid from Pharaoh Hophra (Jeremiah 27:15).
Nebuchadnezzar was swift to move his army into Palestine to punish Zedekiah and the other rebellious vassals. The siege of Jerusalem was a gruesome ordeal which, with one brief interruption, lasted for eighteen months. On August 25, 587 B.C. the supposed impregnable fortress fell. Zedekiah was captured as he attempted to flee the city. He was taken in chains to Riblah where he watched his sons executed. He was then cruelly blinded, bound in chains, and carried off to Babylon (cf. Jeremiah 32:4 and Ezekiel 12:13). Nebuchadnezzar showed no more pity on the citizens of Jerusalem. A pitiless massacre of Jerusalem's inhabitants followed the successful capture of the city. A month later the great king had the city walls and palaces razed and burned. Those who escaped the slaughter were herded off to join the captives on the river Chebar in Babylon. Only a handful of the poorest sort were left on their native soil (2 Kings 25; 2 Chronicles 36, Jeremiah 39, 40, 52).
C. The Situation on the Chebar
Reactions among the Jews taken captive in 597 B.C. were mixed. Some of the more pious may have realized that their removal from their homeland was a divine stroke against an apostate nation. They sat down by the rivers of Babylon and wept as they remembered the sacred precincts of Jerusalem (Psalms 137:1). Others continued in the old idolatrous ways of their fathers (Ezekiel 20:30). While they pretended to be interested in the revelation of God's prophet, they were setting up idols in their hearts (Ezekiel 14:4). They enjoyed his preaching (Ezekiel 33:32), and pondered his parables (Ezekiel 20:49), but they never intended to do as he directed them.
On one point virtually all members of the exilic community agreed. The stay in Babylon would be a short one. God would not abandon His chosen city and people to the Babylonians. This delusion was promoted by a bevy of false prophets who predicted peace for Jerusalem (Ezekiel 13:16), and thus caused the people to trust their lies (Ezekiel 13:19).
From distant Jerusalem Jeremiah did what he could to combat these pretenders. A letter from his pen was carried by royal ambassadors to Babylon. The prophet wisely counseled the exiles to settle down quietly in their new home and try to make the most of their situation. He categorically denied that there would be any speedy deliverance. Only after seventy years had expired would God intervene on behalf of His people (Jeremiah 29:5-14).
The delusions of speedy deliverance and the inviolability of Jerusalem were not easily dislodged. One prophet by the name of Shemaiah fired back a letter to the high priest in Jerusalem suggesting that Jeremiah was mad and should be taken into custody (Jeremiah 29:24-29). But the letter of that venerable old prophet may have been one external stimulus which caused a young priest named Ezekiel to step forth as a prophet of the Lord. At any rate, Ezekiel waged valiant battle against the delusion of speedy deliverance, during that decade before the Babylonian capture and destruction of Jerusalem.
CHRONOLOGY OF THE EXILIC PERIOD
Biblical Events
Babylonian Events
Nebuchadnezzar marches triumphantly through the Haiti land, takes hostages Daniel and others (Dan 13)
604
602
Daniel made ruler over the province of Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar
Jehoiachin rebells against Nebuchadnezzar bands of guerrillas are sent against Jerusalem (2 Kings 24:2)
601
December 9, Jehoiachin dies He is succeeded by his son Jehoiachin
598
March 20, Jehoiachin surrenders lo Nebuchadnezzar 10,000 Jews go captive
597
Jeremiah sends a letter to the captives in Babylon
596
Zedekiah attempts revolt, is summoned to Babylon (Jeremiah 27:3 ff, Jer. 51-59)
593
Ezekiel begins to prophesy
January 15, Nebuchadnezzar begins the final siege of Jerusalem
588
August 25-28 Jerusalem destroyed, third deportation to Babylon
587
Still more Jews are deported to Babylon
582
573
April 28, last dated event in the Book of Ezekiel (40-1)
568
Nebuchadnezzar invaded Egypt
562
Nebuchadnezzar succeeded by his son Amel-marduk, King Jehoiachin released from prison
560
Neriglissar comes to power
556
Nabomdus comes to power
Daniel's vision of four beasts, a little horn, and the Son of Man (Daniel 7)
549
Belshazzar begins to share the authority with his father Nabonidus
Daniel's vision of the ram, the he-goat and a little horn (Daniel 8)
547
539
October 12, Belshazzar's feast, the fall of Babylon to Darius the Mede, an agent of Cyrus the Great, Daniel made one of three presidents
Daniel's revelation of the seventy weeks (Daniel 9)
538
Cyrus-' decree allowing the Jews to return home
Daniel's vision of the intertestamental period (Daniel 10-12)
536
II. GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH EZEKIEL
The only source of information concerning the life of Ezekiel is the book which bears his name. outside of his own book, he is mentioned only by Josephus[1] and Ben Sira,[2] neither of whom add any significant detail to the prophet's biography.
[1] Antiquities x. 5.1; 6.3; 7.2, 8.2
[2] Sir. 49:8
A. The Name Ezekiel
The fourth book of the Major Prophets, like two of its predecessors, takes its name from its principal prophetic figure and author. The Hebrew form of his name (Yechezqe-' 1)means God strengthens, or perhaps God is strong. In the Greek Old Testament the name appears as Iezikiel, and in the Latin Vulgate Ezechiel from which the English spelling is derived. Ezekiel is not mentioned by name by any other writer of Scripture and his name is used only twice in the book which he wrote. Another Ezekiel a priestly dignitary of David's day is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 24:16. It is possible, though not likely, that the prophet Ezekiel was named for the earlier namesake.
It cannot be determined whether the name Ezekiel was the prophet's birth-name conferred on him by his parents, or an official title assumed by himself when he commenced his prophetic vocation. In either case the name is appropriate to the character and calling of this man of God. Ezekiel was to preach to a people who were stiff-hearted (yichizqe-lebh) and of a hard forehead (chizqe-metsach). But the Lord gave assurance that He had made the prophet's face hard (chazaqim) against their faces, and his forehead hard against their forehead (Ezekiel 2:5; Ezekiel 3:7-8).
B. Ezekiel's Family and Station
Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel was a priest before he was a prophet. Nothing is known of his father Buzi.[3] Circumstantial evidence in the book would suggest that Ezekiel was of the Zadokite line of the priesthood.[4] This line of priests was descended from Zadok the great priest of Solomon's day (1 Kings 2:35), and ultimately from Eleazer the son of Aaron. The Zadokites came to prominence during the reformation of Josiah (621 B.C.) and they were no doubt considered part of the Jerusalem aristocracy. This accounts for the fact that Ezekiel was carried off to Babylon in 597 B.C.
[3] One Jewish tradition understands the name Buzi, (the despised one, to refer to Jeremiah. However, Jeremiah never married and fathered children.
[4] Ezekiel 40:66; Ezekiel 43:19; Ezekiel 44:15-16.
Did Ezekiel have a ministry in Jerusalem prior to being carried away to Babylon? No certain answer to this question can be given. It has been suggested that Ezekiel became a Temple priest or at least a priestly trainee during the reign of King Jehoiakim (609-598 B.C.). However, positive evidence that Ezekiel performed priestly functions before his deportation is lacking. The Rabbinic tradition[5] that Ezekiel had already commenced his prophetic activity in Palestine likewise finds no support in the Biblical materials.
[5] Mekhilta Bo lb; Targum Ezekiel 1:3
Unlike Jeremiah who was under divine directive not to marry, Ezekiel had a wife whom he tenderly cherished as the desire of his eyes. It is not clear whether he was married at the time of his deportation; but the likelihood is that he married in Babylon. He may have chosen a wife in response to Jeremiah's letter to the exiles instructing them to settle down and marry. In the ninth year of his captivity, four years after he had begun his prophetic ministry, Ezekiel's wife died (chap. 24). There is no indication that any children were born to this union.
C. The Shaping of Ezekiel
At this distance in time it is impossible to ascertain all the factors which made Ezekiel the man he was. However, it is clear from his writings that this prophet was deeply influenced by four circumstances in his early life. First, Ezekiel must have been deeply stirred by the heroic reform efforts of good King Josiah. This reformation began in the eighth year of the young king's reign, intensified in his twelfth year, and climaxed in his eighteenth year (621 B.C.). In this latter year Hilkiah the high priest found a lost lawbook in the Temple, and that lawbook became the basis for the most thorough-going reform movement ever launched in Judah. Ezekiel's childhood (up to about age thirteen) coincided with this vigorous governmental effort to bring tiny Judah back to the paths of spiritual fidelity.
It is also rather obvious that Ezekiel was deeply impressed by the elaborate Temple services in Jerusalem. Like the young Samuel, Ezekiel may have spent many of his boyhood hours assisting the priests in their Temple duties. At any rate, large blocks of his book betray his interest in priestly ritual.
During his youth Ezekiel would have been exposed to the energetic ministry of the prophet Jeremiah. It would not be going too far to suggest that Jeremiah, the priestly prophet from the Jerusalem suburb of Anathoth, was the teacher of Ezekiel. The two men lived in close proximity to one another for a quarter of a century. The stamp of Jeremiah can be seen in the form of words, phrases, sentences and even complete paragraphs in the Book of Ezekiel.
In assessing the influence that shaped the prophet Ezekiel one cannot overstate the importance of the prophet's deportation to Babylon. In 597 B.C. Ezekiel, along with King Jehoiachin and ten thousand skilled craftsmen, was carried off to the distant land of the Chaldeans. Ezekiel does not appear to have suffered much physically in foreign exile. He, like the other captives, was treated humanely and even kindly. Ezekiel was among those captives who settled in the city of Tel-Abib (Ezekiel 3:15) in the midst of a fertile district near the river Chebar (Ezekiel 1:3). Unlike his fellow exiles, Ezekiel did not view the exile as a temporary and inconsequential setback for Judah. He had been indoctrinated by Jeremiah too thoroughly to accept that superficial view of the situation. He knew the exile and servitude to Babylon would last seventy years (Jeremiah 25:11). He knew that the deportation of 597 B.C. was the first stage of a process which climaxed in the overthrow of the Judaean state and the destruction of Jerusalem. For five years Ezekiel kept silent in Babylon. He listened to others who claimed to be prophets Ahab, Zedekiah, Shemaiah proclaim speedy deliverance (Jeremiah 29). He surely must have read the letter written by Jeremiah to Babylon rebuking these deceivers and pronouncing God's judgment upon them for presuming to speak in the name of the Lord when they had received no message from God (Jeremiah 29). His confidence in the truthfulness of Jeremiah's message must have been strengthened when two of that trio of false prophets were seized by Nebuchadnezzar and roasted in a fire. The point is that Ezekiel had five years in Babylon to pray and meditate, to sift and sort, to ponder and evaluate and to seek to comprehend the full theological significance of what had already happened in 597 B.C. and what was about to happen in 587 B.C.
D. The Ministry of Ezekiel
Ezekiel appears to have been thirty when he received his call to the prophetic ministry (Ezekiel 1:1). With few interruptions, he continued to carry out his assigned mission until his fifty-second year. How long after that he lived cannot be determined. Did he live to see King Jehoiachin released from prison in 562? (2 Kings 25:27 ff.; Jeremiah 52:31). There is no way to tell. A Jewish legend and it is nothing more than that has Ezekiel executed by a Jewish prince on account of his prophecies. According to this legend he was then buried in the tomb of Shem and Arphaxad.
Ezekiel was a contemporary of Jeremiah, and yet he never mentions the name of his co-laborer. He does mention Daniel three times (Ezekiel 14:14; Ezekiel 14:20; Ezekiel 28:3), The early sixth century before Christ saw a flowering of the prophetic institution the likes of which had not been seen since the mid-eighth century when Hosea, Amos, Isaiah and Micah were all flourishing. If the mid-eighth century has been called the golden age of Hebrew prophecy, the early sixth century could just as well be dubbed the silver age of the prophetic movement.
1. The tone of his ministry. Ezekiel understood his mission as being primarily, if not exclusively, to the Judaean exiles in Babylon. His preaching was meant for their ears, and he worked among them as their prophet. The fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. was the pivotal event in the prophet's career, and that disaster served to divide Ezekiel's ministry into two distinct phases.
In phase one of his ministry (593-587 B.C.) Ezekiel was a prophet of doom. In various ways both by deed and word he announced that Jerusalem must fall. His threat seems unconditional. The exiles had to be freed from their dependence on the existence of Jerusalem and the Temple by destroying their confidence in the inviolability of the Holy City. Again and again he dashed to pieces the desperate hope of the exiles swiftly to be returned to their homeland. Ezekiel's basic thesis during these years was that sin had severed the union of Yahweh and Jerusalem For the exiles to have faith meant to free themselves from their dependence on the Temple city, to understand the judgment upon it, and to accept that judgment as being the will and purpose of God.
Following the destruction of Jerusalem, the tone of Ezekiel's ministry changed. His audience was no longer overconfident and overbearing. They were crushed, despondent and spiritually shaken. The primary tenet of their man-made theology had been demonstrated to be false. Their faith was shattered Ezekiel sought to comfort those who had lost hope by raising their vision to see the glorious future which God had in store for His people. He sought to guide those who wished to return to the Lord into proper channels. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel followed the path from a demand for repentance to a promise of deliverance.
2. The preaching of Ezekiel. As with most prophets, preaching played the primary role in the ministry of Ezekiel. Prophets were not writers in the study, but rather impassioned speakers in the market-places.[6] Twice Ezekiel was told to write something the name of the day (Ezekiel 24:2), names on two sticks (Ezekiel 37:15-16) but in so doing he was only underscoring or illustrating the spoken word. Once he was told to draw (Ezekiel 21:18-23), but the sketch which he made in the sand only served as a visual aid to his preaching. However, dozens of times in the book Ezekiel is instructed by God to verbalize the divine message; Prophesy. say (Ezekiel 6:2-3; Ezekiel 13:2; Ezekiel 34:2; Ezekiel 36:1); Speak. say) (Ezekiel 14:4; Ezekiel 20:3; Ezekiel 33:2); Propound a riddle. speak an allegory. say (Ezekiel 17:2-3); Take up a lamentation. say (Ezekiel 19:1-2). Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel probably had a scribe to date and record the various oracles which he delivered.
[6] Weavers, NCB, p. 11
An oracle is a type of prophetic speech in which the prophet becomes the mouthpiece for God. In an oracle Yahweh speaks in the first person. By way of contrast, in a sermon the prophet would speak about God in the third person. An oracle is normally introduced by the formula Thus says Yahweh (the LORD). In Ezekiel the oracles usually conclude with one of three formulas: (1) oracle of Yahweh, the standard oracular conclusion; (2) the affirmation formula, I, Yahweh have spoken; (3) the recognition formula, And you/they shall know that I am Yahweh. The book of Ezekiel is rich in the variety of the prophetic oracles which it contains.
VARIETIES OF PROPHETIC ORACLES IN EZEKIEL
TYPE OF ORACLE
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
Judgment Oracle
Commonly begins with a formula declaring divine hostility
Restoration Oracle
Begins with declaration of God's positive feelings or actions
Commands
Usually serve to introduce a more lengthy oracle Prophet is commanded to set his face against something and prophesy
Demonstration Oracle
Begins with Because clause and ends with Therefore statement which gives the reason for the judgment Very common in Ezekiel
Prophetic Invective
A statement of condemnation by itself An oblique declaration of judgment
Woe Oracle
Introduced by Woe to and usually involves some particular class in society
Recital Oracle
Recounts past judgments of God. Hortatory in character.
Situation Oracle
An oracle growing out of a specific situation.
Disputation Oracle
A popular proverb is first stated and then refuted.
Chap. 18
Prophetic Lament
The victim of divine judgment is addressed in the second person.
Chap. 19
Chap. 27
Mashal Oracle
An allegory or extended simile.
Chap. 15
Chap. 16
Chap. 17
3. The symbolic actions of the prophet. More than any other prophet, Ezekiel communicated his message through symbolic actions. The purpose of such actions was twofold: (1) they were designed to illustrate or render the oral word more concrete; and (2) they were sufficiently bizarre to arouse interest on the Part of the audience. AS a rule the prophet appended to his symbolic action an interpretative oracle which expanded upon the meaning of what he had done. The symbolic act was considered to be the word of the LORD as much as any oral discourse which the prophet delivered. Each of the mini-dramas is introduced by the expression The word of the LORD came to me. These actions are not to be attributed to the creative genius of Ezekiel. The prophet himself bears testimony to the fact that God directed him in the execution of these acts. All these dramatic prophetic actions in Ezekiel concern future events.
SYMBOLIC ACTS IN EZEKIEL
REFERENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
DESCRIPTION
The Siege of Jerusalem
Ezekiel sketches a diagram of Jerusalem and the siege against that city on a soft clay tablet. An iron pan was used to represent the wall of the city.
The Sin of God's People
Ezekiel lies on his right side 390 days and on his left side 40 days to symbolize the years of Israel's and Judah's sin.
The Famine in Jerusalem
Ezekiel to eat scant measure of bread made of inferior grains and baked over a fire kindled with dung.
The Fate of Jerusalem's Population
Ezekiel shaves the hair and beard Some of the hair is burned, some chopped with the razor, scattered lo the wind, and a few are bound in the prophet's skin
The Imminent Fall of Jerusalem
Ezekiel digs a hole through the wall of his house and in the evening stealthly slips through that hole with his meager belongings
The Anxiety of Jerusalem
Ezekiel eats and drinks with quivering and anxiety
The Military Decision of Nebuchadnezzar
Ezekiel made a drawing of a road with two branches and a signpost pointing the way to Jerusalem and Rabbah Ammon
The Shock over Jerusalem's Fall
Ezekiel restrained himself from customary mourning when his wife suddenly died
The Reunion of Israel and Judah
Ezekiel inscribed the names of Judah and Ephraim on two sticks and then held both sucks end to end so that they appeared to be one stick
4. The visions of the prophet. Visionary experiences were also a prominent part of the ministry of Ezekiel. Each vision in the book is introduced by the technical phrase the hand of the LORD was upon me. There is no hint that Ezekiel experienced any traumatic physiological reaction to these visions as did Isaiah (chap. 21), Habakkuk (Habakkuk 3:16), and Daniel (Daniel 10:7-8). Each vision account contains relevant interpretative oracles which are intended to convey some divine message to the prophet and/or his audience. Dialogue between God and the prophet in the visionary experience is common. While the vision itself was an individual experience, the telling of it was a prophetic revelation (cf. Ezekiel 11:25). Presumably Ezekiel related to the captives all of the visions which he received from God.
The prophetic vision was similar to but not identical with a dream experience. Categories of time and space become meaningless. Ezekiel could be physically in Babylon, but then suddenly in Jerusalem or on a high mountain (Ezekiel 40:2), or in the midst of a valley (Ezekiel 37:1). Scenes change rapidly and illogically. Time is compressed. The measuring of the New Temple would have taken considerable time, but in vision this is compressed into but a moment. Unlike a dream, the vision did not occur while sleeping (Ezekiel 8:1). The prophet was conscious of entrance into and departure from the visionary state (cf. Ezekiel 8:1 with Ezekiel 11:24 b).
Ezekiel's visions occur in four sections of the book. The book opens (Ezekiel 1:1 to Ezekiel 3:15) with the vision of the magnificent throne-chariot of God. This was Ezekiel's inaugural vision, the basis for his prophetic ministry. Chapter s 8-11 contain the prophet's visions of the terrible abominations being practiced back in the Jerusalem Temple. The most famous vision in the book is undoubtedly that of the valley of dry bones (chap. 37). This vision sets forth in the most bold symbolism the resurrection of the nation Israel following the Babylonian exile. The Book of Ezekiel closes with a lengthy vision of a future Temple in a new era (chaps. 40-48). Ezekiel devotes more space to recording his visionary experiences than any other prophet in the Old Testament.
E. The Character of Ezekiel
Ezekiel was endowed with high intellectual capacity, clear perception, lively imagination, and eloquent speech. He certainly was acquainted with the sacred books, institutions and customs of his own people as well as the learning and culture of the world in which he lived. So accurate is his knowledge of Egypt and Tyre that one wonders if perhaps he had travelled to these places in his youth. Ezekiel possessed boundless energy, firm resolution, and amazing self-control (Ezekiel 3:15; Ezekiel 3:24; Ezekiel 3:26; Ezekiel 24:18). He evidently was a man of deep personal humility as is indicated by the title applied to him some ninety-three times in the book, son of man. This title as used in Ezekiel sets forth man's finite dependence and lowliness in the presence of God's infinite power and glory.
Ezekiel was a man of intense moral earnestness (chaps. 22, 23). He was a powerful orator (Ezekiel 33:32) and a poet of the first rank (Ezekiel 15:1-5; Ezekiel 19:14; Ezekiel 21:14-21). Though perhaps not as intense as Jeremiah, Ezekiel nonetheless was a warm and sympathetic soul (Ezekiel 9:8; Ezekiel 19:1; Ezekiel 19:14). A deep undertone of pity for the fallen nation of Judah is discernible throughout the third main division in the book. While earlier prophets focus on the people taken collectively, Ezekiel was concerned for individual souls.
Wellhausen referred to Ezekiel as a priest in a prophet's mantle, and so he was. From the moment he was told to eat the scroll containing God's Word this man was endowed with the spirit and message of the Lord. From that point on he became the very embodiment of the word which Yahweh would have the exiles hear. His overt actions were fully as significant as the words he spoke. Ezekiel immersed himself in his prophetic duties for some twenty-two years. Like his two illustrious contemporaries Jeremiah and Daniel, Ezekiel possessed an invincible fortitude which kept him faithful through long years of rejection and dejection.
Ezekiel had a propensity for visions, dramatized signs and trance-states. His visions are on occasion couched in stories of angel translation and include somewhat bizarre symbolism. Some of his actions his dumbness (Ezekiel 3:22 ff.) and symbolic lying on his side (Ezekiel 4:4-8) have been interpreted as symptoms of a more or less profound mental disturbance. Albright, for example, states that Ezekiel became one of the greatest spiritual figures of all time in spite of his tendency to psychic abnormality.[7] Others see evidence of schizophrenia or catalepsy[8] in his personality. It is ridiculous in the extreme to attempt amateur psychoanalysis on a person of another culture and age who has been dead for twenty-five hundred years. One is on safer ground to speak of Ezekiel as a highly developed mystic who was able to utilize channels of communication not normally available to others.[9] The fallacy of suggesting that Ezekiel was in some sense deranged can be easily demonstrated from a study of his words. His thought processes are normal, his ideas are completely comprehensible, his sentences are coherent and the sequence of ideas yield a meaningful continuity.
[7] Albright, FSAC, p. 325.
[8] Catalepsy is a pathological condition akin to autohypnosis. The afflicted person manifests a tonic rigidity of the limbs to the point where they can be placed and maintained in various positions for long periods of time.
[9] Harrison, IOT, p. 851.
In closing this assessment of the personality and character of Ezekiel it might be of interest to note the three paradoxes which Fohrer[10] has observed: (1) burning passion on the one hand, pedantic casuistry on the other; (2) bold hopes for the future, but also a sober sense of reality; (3) on occasion he speaks coldly and bluntly, while on other occasions he feels full sympathy for the devout and the wicked.
[10] Fohrer, IOT, p. 415
F. The Message of Ezekiel
The fall of Jerusalem and captivity were necessary measures for God to employ if He was to correct His disobedient people and draw them back from complete and permanent apostasy. It was Ezekiel's prophetic duty to explain that Judah the theocracy in its outward form must come to an end because of sin, But that would not be the end of the story. God would one day regather a repentant remnant of His chastened people and bring them back to their homeland where they would share in a glorious latter-day theocracy. Thus the basic message of Ezekiel is that God is faithful to His eternal purpose. The sinful nation must be destroyed, yet God will not forsake His own. Ezekiel has been called the father of Judaism because of the influence he is said to have exerted on the later worship of Israel. At first his messages were not well received (Ezekiel 14:1; Ezekiel 14:3; Ezekiel 18:19; Ezekiel 18:25). But in time his prophecies brought about a fundamental change in the idolatrous tendencies of the nation.
Ezekiel was a priest as well as a prophet. In many passages the interest of a man of priestly origin is apparent. His concern with the cult, priesthood and sanctuary doubtlessly influenced the attitude of the post-exilic Jews toward the Temple. But Ezekiel was not a priestly ritualist whose only concern was with the minutiae of liturgy and worship. He makes important contributions to Biblical theology. Perhaps in no other book of the Old Testament do the theological views of the author shine out with greater clearness.
1. Ezekiel's doctrine of God. In Isaiah the focus is on the salvation of the Lord; in Jeremiah, the judgment of the Lord; in Daniel, the kingdom of the Lord; and in Ezekiel the focus is on the glory of the Lord.[11] To Ezekiel God was the supreme, self-existent, almighty (Ezekiel 1:24) and omniscient (Ezekiel 1:18) One.[12] The God of Israel was no mere local or national divinity. He was infinitely exalted above the earth, clothed with honor and majesty. Yahweh was the ruler of the celestial hierarchies and all that dwell on earth. Men and nations yield to His sovereign decisions. Egypt, Babylon and all heathen peoples were bound to obey Him. The mighty Nebuchadnezzar was but a tool in His hand.
[11] Feinberg, PE, p. 12.
[12] Whitelaw, PC, p. xxix. The theological summary which follows is adapted from Whitelaw,
To Ezekiel God was the Holy One (Ezekiel 39:7) whose name was holy (Ezekiel 36:21-22; Ezekiel 39:25). He was a God who could make no compromise with sin, who could by no means overlook the guilty whether individual or national. Because of the sin of His people He withdrew His glory from Jerusalem and the Temple (Ezekiel 10:18; Ezekiel 11:23). This holy God placed terrible denunciations against the wickedness of Israel and Judah in the mouth of His prophet. In fact Ezekiel's denunciation of the spiritual waywardness of Judah is more severe than that of his contemporary Jeremiah.
On the other hand, the God of Ezekiel was a God of boundless grace who had no pleasure in the death of the wicked (Ezekiel 18:23; Ezekiel 18:32; Ezekiel 33:11). Amidst the threats of judgment, He woos them to repentance (Ezekiel 14:22; Ezekiel 16:63; Ezekiel 20:11), Though His people were undeserving of His mercy (Ezekiel 36:32), yet He promised to them a glorious future.
2. Ezekiel's doctrine of the Messiah. The Messiah is not so prominent in Jeremiah and Ezekiel as in Isaiah. Nonetheless there is some striking teaching about the promised one in this book. The Messiah is represented as a tender twig taken from the highest branch of the cedar of Judah's royalty, planted upon a high mountain (Ezekiel 17:22-24). He is the one to whom the diadem of Israel's sovereignty rightfully belonged and to whom it would be given after it had been removed from the head of the wicked Zedekiah (Ezekiel 21:27). The Messianic David will be a faithful prince among God's restored people. He will perform all the functions of a true and faithful Shepherd (Ezekiel 34:23-24), ruling over them as king (Ezekiel 37:24). This Prince will eat and drink before the Lord in His capacity of special representative of God's people (Ezekiel 44:3).
3. Ezekiel's doctrine of man. Ezekiel viewed man as God's creature and property (Ezekiel 18:4). He shows awareness of the Biblical teaching of the original innocence of man (Ezekiel 28:15; Ezekiel 28:17). But man had fallen; man is sinful (Ezekiel 18:21-30). His heart needs to be softened and renewed (Ezekiel 18:31). For his wickedness he is and will be held individually accountable (Ezekiel 18:4; Ezekiel 18:13; Ezekiel 18:18). He is a free moral agent and is therefore responsible for his own reformation of life and purification of heart.[13] (Ezekiel 33:11; Ezekiel 43:9). To those willing to receive it God would give a new heart (Ezekiel 11:19; Ezekiel 36:26; Ezekiel 37:23). Among the Old Testament prophets Ezekiel has earned the title the champion of individualism.
[13] Ezekiel is expanding on a theme proclaimed by Jeremiah (Jeremiah 31:34).
4. Ezekiel's doctrine of the kingdom of God. Though the book never uses the terminology kingdom of God, the book certainly points to the concept of God's reign over the hearts of redeemed men. Ezekiel stressed one point which was considered rank heresy by his countrymen, viz., that the kingdom of God was not inseparably connected with the political existence of Judah. He saw an inner spiritual kernel of the nation existing in the lands of the dispersion (Ezekiel 12:17). This nucleus was constantly growing as penitent men were added to it (Ezekiel 34:11-19). Eventually Ezekiel saw a new Israel with Messiah as its prince (Ezekiel 34:23-24; Ezekiel 37:24), That new Israel would walk in the law of the Lord (Ezekiel 11:20; Ezekiel 16:61; Ezekiel 20:43; Ezekiel 36:27) and dwell in the land of Canaan (Ezekiel 36:33; Ezekiel 37:25). God would enter into a new covenant with that people[14] (Ezekiel 37:26-28), and He would walk in close fellowship with them (Ezekiel 39:29; Ezekiel 46:9). Upon them He would pour out His Holy Spirit (Ezekiel 36:27; Ezekiel 39:27).
[14] The classic Old Testament promise of a new covenant is Jeremiah 31:31 ff.
G. The Mission of the Prophet
Ezekiel's special task was to act as a watchman to the house of Israel (Ezekiel 3:17; Ezekiel 33:7). He was to warn the wicked of the danger of persisting in wickedness, and the righteous of the peril of turning from the path of fidelity. To be more specific, Ezekiel's task can be seen as having a four-fold thrust.
1. He was to demolish delusions to refute the shallow theology which undergirded the nation that Jerusalem could not be destroyed; to defuse the potentially dangerous deception that the exile would soon end with the overthrow of Babylon. Ezekiel had a clear and accurate assessment of the moral and religious situation both in Judah and in Babylon.
2. He was to expose apostasy, and thereby present God's rationale for the judgments which had already befallen Judah, and those more terrible judgments which were about to fall. He was to interpret for Israel in exile the stern logic of her past history.[15]
[15] Whitelaw, PC, p. x.
3. He was to awaken repentance, and thereby raise up from the ruins of the old Israel a new people who might inherit the promises which had been given to the old.
4. He was to stimulate hope for a better tomorrow with the promise of restoration after the seventy years of Babylonian supremacy had ended.
Ezekiel's mission was in stark contrast to that of Daniel, his illustrious contemporary and fellow captive. Daniel was God's messenger to the mighty monarchs of Babylon and Persia. He rubbed elbows with royalty and never, so far as is known, mingled with and preached to his fellow exiles. Ezekiel, on the other hand, conducted most of his ministry from his home. He apparently never undertook journeys to distant colonies of exiles but restricted his prophetic utterances to those who sought him out at his dwelling (Ezekiel 8:1; Ezekiel 14:1; Ezekiel 20:1; Ezekiel 24:19). However, some of his sermons may have been delivered before larger audiences[16] Most of his utterances were first spoken before being written. His foreign nation oracles (chaps. 25-32) and his elaborate description of the Messianic Temple (chaps. 40-48) were probably never spoken orally.
[16] Sermons on Judah's sins (chaps 6:7, 13, 16) sermons on repentance (Chaps 33, 36); and sermons on the justice of God (chaps 18, 33).
Like most of the prophets, Ezekiel was commissioned by God to deliver a series of oracles against foreign nations. The messages were intended to sound a note of warning to the nations who had harassed Israel and were exulting in her overthrow. Ezekiel argued that the destruction of Israel was nothing over which the nations should gloat because Israel's destruction was a pledge of their own doom. These foreign nation oracles also served the purpose of beginning the consolation which Ezekiel had for his own people. Israel should derive comfort from the thought that God was preparing for their recovery by pouring out His wrath upon their foes.
III. THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL
Before undertaking an exegesis of the prophecies of Ezekiel some introductory and critical matters pertaining to the book must first be treated.
A. The Authorship of the Book
The view that Ezekiel the son of Buzi, the sixth century exile, authored the entire book which bears his name has good evidence in its support. First, and most important, this book throughout claims to be by this Ezekiel (Ezekiel 1:1; Ezekiel 8:1; Ezekiel 33:1; Ezekiel 40:1-4). A unity of theme is observable throughout the forty-eight Chapter s God's vengeance in Israel's destruction and God's vindication in Israel's restoration. Thirteen prophecies are dated and localized in such a way as to point to the life and times of Ezekiel. Similarity of thought, style, phrasing and arrangement make it clear that the entire book is the work of one mind. The evidence for the authenticity and unity of Ezekiel is so convincing that some scholars who otherwise take a critical view toward the Old Testament have written in support of the essential Ezekielian authorship (e. g., Cornill, and Driver). The work as a whole bears the decided imprint of a single personality.
The traditional view of Ezekielian authorship is clouded by two curious statements which are found in Jewish literature regarding the Book of Ezekiel. The first is in the Talmud (fifth century A.D.) where it is said that the men of the Great Synagogue wrote Ezekiel and the Twelve.[17] A second curious statement is found in Josephus (first century A. D.) But not only did he [Jeremiah] predict to the people [the destruction of Jerusalem, but also the prophet Ezekiel who first wrote two books about these things and left them [for posterity.]
[18] The Talmud statement probably means nothing more than that the men of the Great Synagogue in the days of Ezra edited and copied the original writing of Ezekiel, The two books referred to by Josephus probably is a reference to two major divisions of the present Book of Ezekiel. Young[19] suggests that Chapter s 1-32 may have constituted the first book and Chapter s 33-48 the second.
[17] Baba Bathra 15a.
[18] Josephus Antiquities X 5.1.
[19] Young IOT p. 256.
In spite of the positive evidence supporting the traditional view of authorship some modern critics have questioned the authenticity of the book. Bentzen, for example, contends that the book as it now stands is no authentic work of the prophet Ezekiel.[20] The grounds upon which such a statement is made are two. First, some critics dogmatically assert that a prophet cannot hold forth both doom and promise. They imagine that the historic Ezekiel must have been a preacher of darkness and doom who afforded the nation no ray of hope. Unfortunately for the critics, nearly all Old Testament prophets who speak of doom also hold out some hope of restoration and glory for God's people. The mixture of gloom and discouragement on the one hand, and hope and optimism on the other can be observed in the discourses of any great preacher of the word.
[20] Bentzen, IOT, 11, 125.
In the second place, the critics contend that the Book of Ezekiel betrays a Palestinian rather than a Babylonian viewpoint. The descriptions of events back in Palestine the idolatries of the Temple worshipers (chap. 8); the sudden death of Pelatiah (Ezekiel 11:13); Zedekiah's attempted flight from Jerusalem (Ezekiel 12:3-12); Nebuchadnezzar's encampment outside Jerusalem (Ezekiel 24:2) are so vivid that they must have been composed by an eyewitness living in Palestine. But in some cases (e.g., chap. 8) a supernatural vision must have been given to the prophet. In other cases tidings from Jerusalem may have reached the prophet in Babylonia before he penned the passage.
Jeremiah preached for twenty-three years before he was instructed by God to record his messages for future generations. It is impossible to say at what point Ezekiel penned his messages. Fohrer[21] conjectures that Ezekiel probably wrote down his sayings and reports rather than relying on oral tradition. Sometimes Ezekiel seems to have written down his inspirations at once and proclaimed them later or even kept them to himself, so that they became known only much later (e.g., Ezekiel 3:16-21).
[21] Fohrer, IOT, pp. 410-11.
Modern critics generally postulate a complicated editorial process with expansions, enrichments, and exegetical contributions which have more or less overgrown the words of Ezekiel.[22] The sayings of Ezekiel were passed on by his disciples during an indeterminate oral stage.[23] These sayings were not considered immutable holy givens but relevant messages which were often modified by explanatory phrases and new sayings amplifying, changing or correcting the original[24] Rival collections of the prophet's utterances gradually grew up. These were eventually put in writing as an aid to memory[25] These critics would not allow that Ezekiel was responsible for the arrangement and assembling of the utterances and reports. Others must have done this work. The critics disagree among themselves as to whether this rather extensive editorializing was a long process (Freedman), a single editor (May) or a particular circle of disciples (Zimmerli). In any case the critics believe that the evolution of the book continued even after the editors put it together. Later literary accretions by scribes who copied the work are postulated by the critics.[26]
[22] Fohrer, IOT, p. 411.
[23] Wevers, NCB, p. 22
[24] Weavers NCB p. 22.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Ibid.
It would seem, then, that Ezekiel himself compiled the book on the basis of notes of his prophetic oracles that he had accumulated over a period of time. Subsequently he edited and augmented the first edition of his work. The view that the duplicate sections were the work of copyists is weak in that it tends to disrupt the acknowledged unity of character exhibited by the book
B. The Canonicity of the Book
The Book of Ezekiel was one of five antilegomena books spoken against in the Hebrew canon. Certain Rabbis were convinced that the teaching of this book was not in harmony with Mosaic law. The Torah (Law), for example, prescribed that two bullocks and seven lambs and one ram be offered at new moon celebrations (Numbers 28:11) whereas Ezekiel speaks of only one unblemished bullock, six lambs and one ram (Ezekiel 46:6). Rabbai Hananiah vigorously defended the book before those who argued that it should be removed from the canon. Legend has it that he burned the midnight oil 300 jars of it in harmonizing Ezekiel with the Pentateuch.[27] Hananiah's effort at harmonization must not have satisfied all Jewish scholars. The Talmud (Menach. 45a) states that when Elijah comes (cf. Malachi 4:5) the discrepancies between Ezekiel and the Pentateuch would be explained. Modern scholars are not concerned about the differences between the worship system described in Ezekiel and that set forth by Moses. Ezekiel was describing the worship of a new age and a new covenant.
[27] Shabbath 14b; Hagiga 13a, Menachoth 45a.
The Book of Ezekiel certainly belongs in the Old Testament canon. It apparently was found in Nehemiah's collection of the acts of the kings, and the prophets, and of David, and the epistles of the kings concerning holy gifts (2MMalachi 2:13). Ezekiel was included in the Septuagint translation which was initiated about 280 B.C. Josephus the famous Jewish historian numbered this book among the books held sacred by the Jews in his day.[28] The majority of the Rabbis defended the book against the disparagement of those who were concerned about the discrepancies with the Pentateuch. The Book of Ezekiel was listed in the Talmud (Baba Bathra 14b) as belonging to the canon. Among early Christian scholars the book was acknowledged by Melito (A,D. 172) and Origen (A.D. 250). In Christian circles the canonicity of Ezekiel has never been seriously questioned.
[28] Against Apion I:8, Reference has already been made to the curious statement of Josephus that Ezekiel wrote two books (Ant. x. Ezekiel 5:1).
C. Ezekiel in Modern Criticism
Modern criticism of the Book of Ezekiel goes back to the Dutch Jewish philosopher Spinoza in the seventeenth century. From that time to the present the attacks on the book have taken four forms.
1. Attacks on the unify of the book. In the eighteenth century questioning the unity of ancient documents came in vogue. The unity of nearly every Old Testament prophetic book became suspect at this time. G. L. Oeder suggested that Chapter s 40-48 were added to the Book of Ezekiel long after the prophet was dead.
2. Attacks upon the authenticity of the whole book. In the nineteenth century some critics began to argue that the entire Book of Ezekiel was a literary fraud. One group of critics dated the book to the Persian (Zunz, Geiger) and some even as late as the Maccabean age (Seinecke). C. C. Torrey with his characteristic propensity for out radicalizing the radicals proposed in his book Pseudo-Ezekiel (1930) that the whole book was a pseudepigraphic work composed centuries after the time of Ezekiel.[29] Another critic, James Smith (no relation to the present writer), argued that the book was actually written in the time of King Manasseh early in the seventh century a century earlier than Ezekiel. In response to these conjectures the opinion of another respected critic needs to be heard. Fohrer sees Ezekiel active in the period defined by the dates given in his utterances. There is no evidence in favor of a date different from that suggested in the book of Ezekiel.[30
]
[29] Torrey dated the book about 230 B.C. Browne dated the book to the time of Alexander the Great, and van den Born to the days of Ezra-Nehemiah.
[30] Fohrer, IOT, p. 406.
3. Attacks upon the integrity of the text. Most critics will allow that the sixth century Ezekiel wrote some part of the present book; but they attribute to him only a bare minimum of the total verses in the book. This trend began with Jahn (1905) who proposed that scribal notes from the margin of ancient manuscripts had been later inserted into the text of the Book of Ezekiel. Hoelscher (1942) wielded the knife of literary criticism mercilessly, arguing that only 170 verses of the 1273 in the book actually belonged to Ezekiel,[31] William A. Irwin (1943) did a little better for the prophet, giving him 251 verses of the book. H. G. May in the Interpreter's Bible generously assigns about half the book to Ezekiel.
[31] Harrison (IOT, p. 824) refers to Hoelscher's work as one of the most radical treatments to which the book of Ezekiel has ever been subjected.
On what basis do these critics deny these large chunks of material to Ezekiel? Hoelscher and Irwin take the distinction between poetry and prose as the criterion of genuineness. They deny Ezekiel's authorship of everything that cannot be fitted into a pre-determined poetic style. Fohrer takes to task other critics for denying large sections of the book to Ezekiel. He then asserts: Nevertheless, the material preserved under the name of Ezekiel contains a series of later passages deriving from various authors and various periods.[32] Fohrer himself denies about 111 verses to Ezekiel. Each critic seems to have his own criteria for deciding what is genuine and what is not. The subjectivity of this approach is manifest. Harrison raises an appropriate question: How is it possible to establish canons of genuineness, and what in fact constitutes an oracle thus defined?[33]
[32] Fohrer, IOT, p. 410.
[33] Harrison, IOT, p. 840,
4. Attacks upon the setting of the book. In 1932 Herntrich introduced the suggestion that Ezekiel actually lived and ministered in Palestine rather than in Babylon as the book plainly states. Later editors were responsible for the literary framework of the book which makes it appear that Ezekiel lived in Babylon. Other critics have suggested that the locale shifted during Ezekiel's ministry. Ezekiel is said to have returned to Palestine from Babylon (May) in 591 B.C. or to have commenced his ministry in Palestine and subsequently to have gone to Babylon (Bertholet). Some complicate the matter further by postulating a double shift in Ezekiel's ministry. Pfeiffer would have Ezekiel first in Babylon, then back in Jerusalem, and finally back among the exiles in Babylon.[34]
[34] Bentzen (IOT, 11, 128) suggests that Ezekiel was a Babylonian secret agent who was allowed to return to Palestine a few years before the fall of Jerusalem.
Five arguments have been advanced in support of the view that Ezekiel spent part of his time ministering in Palestine.
a) Many of the oracles in Chapter s 1-24 are relevant to Jerusalem and Judah rather than to the exiles. Answer: Very little is known about the religious attitudes of the exiles apart from the Book of Ezekiel. How then can one be so sure that what Ezekiel says was not appropriate to the situation in Babylonia? The exiles apparently considered themselves still a part of Jerusalem society. They optimistically expected to return to the homeland shortly. Therefore invectives against Jerusalem society are far from meaningless to the exilic audience. Furthermore, some of Ezekiel's utterances may actually have been carried back to Jerusalem by travelers.
b) In chapter 16 Ezekiel is told to make known to Jerusalem her abominations. Answer: A message to a society does not demand the physical presence of the prophet. Numerous examples can be cited of prophets who resided in Jerusalem and yet addressed oracles to foreign nations they had never seen or visited. Therefore, the fact that one or two prophecies are directed to Jerusalem and Judah is no evidence that Ezekiel must have been in Palestine at that particular moment.
c) Prophecies are directed to the house of Israel, the rebellious house which might refer to the inhabitants of Palestine. Answer: The exiles considered themselves a part of the house of Israel. The concept of national solidarity made the exiles corporately part of the rebellious house.
d) Ezekiel betrays an intimate acquaintance with what is going on in the Temple in Chapter s 8-11. Answer: Ezekiel's priestly background would have provided him with vivid recollection of the Temple structure and worship. Furthermore, Jeremiah 29 proves that contacts between Jerusalem and Babylon were greater than one might think. News of recent developments in Jerusalem could have reached the prophet's ears by means of those who travelled between the two places. Finally, Ezekiel may have received his knowledge of the Temple idolatries through Divine revelation.
e) Chapter 11 would demand clairvoyant powers on the part of Ezekiel if he were living in Babylonia. How could he have known that Pelatiah had died immediately in response to the oracle which he had just given? Answer: It may be that the statement in Ezekiel 11:13 that Pelatiah died immediately in response to the oracle is itself a part of the vision. If so, no problem exists. On the other hand, through Divine revelation Ezekiel may have known immediately that Pelatiah died in accordance with the prophetic word.
The theory of a Palestinian ministry for Ezekiel creates more problems than it solves. Far-reaching textual alterations are necessary in order to support the theory. Whole sections of the book must be pronounced spurious. Fohrer, himself a radical critic, has stated: Nothing suggests Jerusalem as one or the only location of Ezekiel's ministry; on the contrary, everything points to Babylonia.[35] Of the utterances of Jeremiah, he is familiar essentially with those from the period before 597 B.C. Not one shred of evidence can be produced to suggest that Ezekiel spent the crucial years under Zedekiah in Jerusalem and experienced the bitter siege of that city. Besides, no one has ever successfully explained what an editor possibly could have gained by transferring the ministry of a Palestinian prophet to Babylon.
[35] Fohrer, IOT, p. 407. Even among critical scholars the trend is to support an exclusively Babylonian ministry for Ezekiel as can be seen in the works of Howie (1950), Cooke (1960) and in West's Introduction (1971).
The critical studies of the Book of Ezekiel over the past fifty years or so have largely cancelled each other out. The situation now is much the same as it was prior to 1924 (the work of Hoelscher) when the unity and integrity of the book were generally accepted by the critics.[36] H. H. Rowley (1953) defended the essential unity of the book and took issue with those who would transfer the prophet from Babylon to Palestine or from the sixth century to some other time-frame.[37]
[36] Ellison, NBD, p. 407.
[37] Rowley's work The Book of Ezekiel in Modern Study is an excellent introduction to modern criticism of Ezekiel.
D. Literary Characteristics
Most modern critics give Ezekiel low marks on literary style. Driver referred to him as the most uniformly prosaic of the earlier prophets. However, it is wrong to analyze the book on the naive assumption that the author was essentially a poet as some critics have done (e. g., Hoelscher and Irwin). It is true that the book is characterized by a certain amount of prolixity. The sentences are often long and involved. But Ezekiel's style is enriched by uncommon comparisons. The straight forward and embellished narration is at times punctuated by passages sublime in both thought and expression. If at times Ezekiel smothers his readers with comparatively dry and uninteresting details (e. g., Ezekiel 40:6-49), at other times he overwhelms them with a barrage of scintillating images (e. g., chap. 27). At times he halts and staggers (chap. 17); at other times he emotionally plunges forward. To be specific, the Book of Ezekiel is marked by at least five stylistic characteristics.
1. The book is permeated with the supernatural. It is impossible to reduce Ezekiel to an ordinary or even an extraordinary man of genius. The book is not the result of the subjective meditations of Ezekiel about the condition of his people. Ezekiel insists that every vision, every symbol, every oracle be understood as Divine communication of which he was merely the intermediary.
2. The book is marked by highly idealistic coloring. Challenging visions, allegories, parables and the like are found through out. God no doubt chose to communicate His Word in forms suitable to the poetic temperament of this prophet. This type of imaginative discourse is eminently suited for capturing the attention of reluctant listeners and impressing vividly upon their minds the truths of God. Scholars differ among themselves as to the source of Ezekiel's imaginary. Was he influenced by the art of Babylonia? Many sculptured shapes found in that area present points of analogy to Ezekiel's cherubim. However Keil has argued that all the symbolism in the book is derived from the Israelite sanctuary and is the logical outcome of Old Testament ideas and views.
3. Ezekiel makes extensive use of earlier Scriptures. He displays an intimate knowledge of the works of the eighth century prophets Hosea, Amos and Isaiah as well as those of his own century Jeremiah and Zephaniah.[38] Most certainly Ezekiel was acquainted with the Pentateuch.[39]
[38] See Whitelaw, PC, p. xxv for a list of passages reflecting the writings of Jeremiah.
[39] .An extensive list of passages indicating widespread acquaintance with the Pentateuch can be found in Whitelaw-', PC, pp. xxv-xxvi.
4. The book reflects a cosmopolitan outlook. Ezekiel exhibits a remarkable acquaintance, with several foreign lands. Some critics have even suggested that he may have visited these lands in his youth.
5. Ezekiel employed cultured diction. He was an aristocrat, and there is something aristocratic about his style.[40]
[40] Ibid.
6. The book is marked by originality. Ezekiel freely reproduced the sentiments of the earlier writers with the stamp of his own individuality upon it.[41] Among the expressions and thoughts original in the book are the following: son of man; rebellious house; hand of Yahweh was on me; the word of Yahweh came unto me; set your face against; they shall know that I am Yahweh; they shall know that a prophet is in their midst; thus says Yahweh Elohim (God). A long list of Hebrew verbs and nouns peculiar to Ezekiel could also be produced.
[41] Ibid.
7. The book is full of repetition and deliberate redundancy. If his visions are obscure and mystical, Ezekiel's sermons are simple. He believed in the technique of emphasis by repetition. He wanted to make it impossible for his hearers to misunderstand his prose discourses.
E. The Interpretation of Ezekiel
Such obscurity as does exist in Ezekiel is found in the main in the first ten and in the last nine Chapter s of the book. Ezekiel was the great mystic among the prophets. It is probably because of the difficulty of interpreting his visionary and symbolic prophecies, that Ezekiel is the most neglected of all the prophets.[42] Hall has put his finger on the reason for the difficulties in Ezekiel. He regards the book as
[42] Feinberg PE, p. 13.
a transition from regular prophetic literature with its annunciations and denunciations to the highly figurative apocalyptic literature of works such as Daniel and Revelation.[43]
[43] Hall, WBC, p. 369.
Ezekiel is a mixture of prosaic and poetic, historical and prophetical, literal and symbolic, realistic and idealistic discourse. Each type of literature must be interpreted according to its own hermeneutical principles. Ordinarily it is not too difficult to identify clearly these various types of literature. Obviously, the visions and symbols are the most difficult. Ezekiel's visions seem to have been based on actual scenic representations that were present to his mind's eye during the moments of ecstasy. But what of his symbolic acts? Were they actual occurrences or merely carried out mentally by the prophet and reported to the captives? Were they external (Plumptre) or merely internal occurrences (Keil; Hengstenberg)? There is no reason to doubt that Ezekiel did physically perform some of his symbolic acts, e. g., carrying stuff from his house (Ezekiel 11:7); sighing bitterly before the eyes of the people (Ezekiel 21:6). In other instances the question is not so easily answered. This much is clear If Ezekiel did not actually perform the actions before his auditors in his own house, it at least seemed to him while in the ecstatic state that he did.[44]
[44] Whitelaw, PC p. xxix.
F. The Text of Ezekiel
Harrison describes the Hebrew text of Ezekiel as poorly preserved.[45] He attributes the difficulties in the Hebrew text to the obscurities and technical expressions and hapax legomena which led subsequent copyists into frequent error. It is interesting, however, that the fragments that could be detached from the Ezekiel scroll found in Cave 11 at Qumran show that the Hebrew text was fixed in a form similar to the standard Masoretic Text by the middle of the first century B.C. at the latest. The Septuagint (Greek) text of Ezekiel was translated by a fairly literal translator, although he occasionally paraphrases when the text is difficult. At times he gave such a literal rendering of the Hebrew that his translation makes for impossible Greek. He often omitted repetitious words and phrases so as to make for a simpler form of the text. Sometimes he appears to intentionally change the text in accordance with a different point of view.
[45] Harrison, IOT, p. 854.
G. Structure and Arrangement
The Book of Ezekiel has been carefully constructed, and it is to Ezekiel himself that the credit for this arrangement belongs. The fall of Jerusalem was the mid-point in the ministry of the prophet and also in the book. Chapter s 1-24 come from the period prior to the fall of Jerusalem; the last twenty-four Chapter s in the main are post-fall.[46] In terms of subject matter the book breaks down into three divisions oracles against Israel (1-24), oracles against foreign nations (25-32); and a second section pertaining to Israel (33-48).[47]
[46] Because of the importance of the destruction of the Temple some would divide the book at Ezekiel 33:21.
[47] The structure OF Ezekiel is similar to that of Isaiah in the Hebrew Bible and Jeremiah in the Greek Bible where the oracles against foreign nations are grouped in the middle of the book.
THE STRUCTURE OF EZEKIEL
Oracles Concerning
Israel
Oracles Concerning
Foreign Nations
Oracles Concerning
Israel
Chapter s 1-24
Chapter s 25-32
Chapter s 33-48
Prior to the Fall
of Jerusalem of Jerusalem
During the siege
of Jerusalem
After the Fall
Condemnation and
Catastrophe
Consolation and
Comfort
Whatever interruption of strict chronological sequence which the book displays is best accounted for as the work of Ezekiel himself not some perplexed editor. The prophet at times desired to group his prophecies by the subjects to which they related rather than by the dates on which they were spoken.
The Book of Ezekiel displays a chronological system unparalleled in any prophetic book save Haggai. Sixteen dates are given in fourteen passages. In two cases (Ezekiel 1:1-2; Ezekiel 40:1) a double dating is employed utilizing two different counting systems. In the following chart the chronological references are tabulated and converted into the modern calendrical system.
REFERENCE
YEAR/MONTH/DAY
CONVERSION
5/4/5
July 31, 593 B.C.
6/6/5
September 17, 592 B.C.
7/5/10
August 14, 591 B.C.
9/10/10
January 15, 588 B.C.
10/10/12
January 7, 587 B.C.
11/1/7
April 30, 594 B.C.
11/3/1
June 21, 587 B.C.
12/12/1
March 4, 585 B.C.
12/?/15
*March 18, 585 B.C.
12/10/5
January 8, 585 B.C.
25/1/10
April 28, 573 B.C.
11/?/1
*August 19, 587 B.C.
* Since the month is not given in the Hebrew text, the date is conjectured. See discussion at the relevant passage. The conversion column is based on the assumption that Ezekiel used the Spring calendar which was common in Babylon rather than the Autumn calendar which at various times was employed in Palestine.
The dating in the Book of Ezekiel is based on the years of the deportation of King Jehoiachin. This eighteen year old king who went captive in 597 B.C. was apparently considered by many of that time the legal ruler of Judah vis-a-vis Zedekiah who was looked upon as a mere regent of Nebuchadnezzar.[48]
[48] Even after his deportation to Babylon, Jehoiachin appears to have possessed land in Palestine. A seal of his steward dating after 597 B.C. has been found in Palestine, See W. F. Albright, The Seal of Eliakim and the Latest Pre-Exilic History of Judah, with Some Observations on Ezekiel, JBL, LI (1932) 77-106.
Harrison[49] follows Brownlee in suggesting that the Book of Ezekiel is a literary bifid, i.e., the book reveals a two part arrangement. Harrison puts a great deal of emphasis on the statement of Josephus (Ant. X. 5.1) that Ezekiel left behind two books. These books, originally separate productions of the prophet, have been combined in the present book of Ezekiel. Harrison thinks that Chapter s 1-23 constitute Book One and Chapter s 24-48 Book Two. The following chart indicates parallels between the two books of Ezekiel.
[49] Harrison, IOT, pp. 848-49.
BOOK ONE
Chapter S 1-23
BOOK TWO
Chapter S 24-48
The Vengeance of the Lord against His People
The Vindication of the Lord through His People
The name Ezekiel appears once (Ezekiel 1:3)
The name Ezekiel appears once (Ezekiel 24:24)[50]
[50] Such renewed claim to authorship is made by Thucydides in his History (V, 26), the probable beginning of the second roll of his work.
A commissioning of the prophet (Ezekiel 3:16-21)
A commissioning of the prophet (Ezekiel 33:1-9)
Commission followed by dumbness Ezekiel 3:25-27
Commission followed by release from dumbness Ezekiel 33:21 f.
Divine glory forsakes the Temple (chaps. 8-11)
Divine glory returns to sanctify the land Ezekiel 43:1-5
REVIEW QUESTIONS
True and False
1.
Ezekiel began his prophetic career prior to being deported to Babylon.
2.
Ezekiel was deported to Babylon after Jerusalem was de stroyed in 587 B.C.
3.
Jehoiachin was the last king of Judah.
4.
Ezekiel was born during the reformation led by King Josiah.
5.
Chronologically it is possible that Ezekiel knew Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel.
6.
Jeremiah was taken captive with Ezekiel to Babylon.
7.
The exiles in Babylon initially believed that their stay there would be brief.
8.
Ezekiel is mentioned by name in the Bible three times out side his book.
9.
Ezekiel's name means Yahweh is Lord.
10.
No other person by the name Ezekiel appears in the Bible.
11.
Ezekiel's father Amoz was thought in Jewish tradition to be a prophet.
12.
Unlike Jeremiah, Ezekiel had a wife.
13.
Ezekiel lived five years in Babylon before God called him to be a prophet.
14.
Ezekiel was only a youth of eighteen when God called him.
15.
Ezekiel initially was a prophet of doom.
16.
Son of Man is the most frequent title given to Ezekiel in the book.
17.
Ezekiel was a priest as well as a prophet.
18.
The Messiah is not as prominent in Ezekiel as in Isaiah.
19.
The term kingdom of God is one of the most characteristic expressions in Ezekiel.
20.
Unlike Isaiah and Jeremiah, the Book of Ezekiel contains no prophecies concerning foreign nations.
21.
Josephus refers to two books of Ezekiel.
22.
The canonicity of the book of Ezekiel has never been seriously questioned in the Christian Church.
23.
Only the poetic verses in the book actually go back to Ezekiel himself.
24.
The trend among modern critics currently is to support the unity and integrity of Ezekiel.
25.
Events in Ezekiel are dated according to the years of the captivity of King Jehoiachin.
Abbreviations and Bibliography
ANET
James B. Pritchard (ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (third edition; Princeton, New Jersey: University Press, 1969).
ARAB
David Luckenbill, Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia (Chicago: University Press, 1927).
ASV
American Standard Version (1901)
BBC
J. Kenneth Grider, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, in vol. 4 of Beacon Bible Commentary, ed. A. F. Harper, et al. (Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press, 1966).
BC
G. Currey, Ezekiel, in vol. VI of The Holy Bible with Explanatory and Critical Commentary, ed. F. C. Cook (New York: Scribner, 1892).
BCOT
C. F. Keil, The Prophecies of Ezekiel, Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950 reprint).
BPE
Keith Carley, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Cambridge: University Press, 1974).
CB
A. B. Davidson, The Book of Ezekiel, The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges (Cambridge: University Press, 1896).
EB
J. F. C. Fuller, Tyre, Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th ed., XXII, 652-53.
EBP
Barton Payne, Encyclopaedia of Biblical Prophecy (New York: Harper and Row, 1973). Wilbur Smith, Egypt in Biblical Prophecy (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1957).
EE
Patrick Fairbairn, Exposition of Ezekiel (Grand Rapids: Sovereign Grace, 1971 reprint).
EMM
H. L. Ellison, Ezekiel: The Man and His Message (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1956).
EPH
Andrew W. Blackwood, Jr., Ezekiel, Prophecy of Hope (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1965).
FEE
Erich Sauer, From Eternity to Eternity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954).
FSAC
W. F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity (second edition; Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1957).
HBC
Jack Finegan, Handbook of Biblical Chronology (Princeton, New Jersey: University Press, 1964),
HI
Philip Mauro, The Hope of Israel (reprinted by Pastors Library Foundation, n.d.).
IB
H. G. May and E. L. Allen, The Book of Ezekiel, The Interpreter's Bible (Nashville: Abingdon, 1956).
ICC
George A. Cooke, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Ezekiel, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1936).
IDB
A. S. Kapelrud, Tyre, The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, R-Z, 721-723.
IOT
Aage Bentzen, Introduction to the Old Testament (fifth ed.; Copenhagen: Gad, 1959). George Fohrer, Introduction to the Old Testament, trans. David Green (Nashville: Abingdon, 1968). R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969). Robert Pfeiffer Introduction to the Old Testament, (New York: Harper, 1948). Edward J. Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1960).
KJV
King James Version (1611)
NASB
New American Standard Bible (1963).
NBD
H. L. Ellison, Ezekiel, Book of, The New Bible Dictionary, ed. J. D. Douglas (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962).
NCB
John W. Wevers, Ezekiel, The Century Bible, New Series (Camden, New Jersey: Nelson, 1969).
OTC
F. Gardiner, Ezekiel, in vol. V of An Old Testament Commentary for English Readers, ed. Charles John Ellicott (New York: Cassell, 1901).
PC
E. H. Plumptre and Thomas Whitelaw, Ezekiel, 2 vols. Pulpit Commentary (New York: Funk and Wagnals, 1909).
PE
Charles Lee Feinberg, The Prophecy of Ezekiel (Chicago: Moody, 1969).
RA
H. H. Rowley, The Relevance of Apocalyptic (London: Lutterworth, 1944).
RI
Yehezkel Kaufman, The Religion of Israel (Chicago: University Press, 1960).
RSV
Revised Standard Version (1952).
SBB
S. Fisch, Ezekiel, Soncino Books of the Bible (London: Soncino, 1950).
SOTI
Gleason Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction (Chicago: Moody, 1964).
TOTC
John B. Taylor, Ezekiel, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries (London: Tyndale, 1969).
WBC
Bert Hall, The Book of Ezekiel, in vol. III of The Wesleyan Bible Commentary, ed. Charles W. Carter (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967).