Quotations A wide variety has been found to exist in the literary allusions of the four Gospels. The same freedom pervades the rest of the NT. Characteristic differences are, no doubt, to be met with in different groups of apostolic writings; but the field of quotation, direct and indirect, extends throughout from exact reproduction of the original texts to the merest suggestion or reminiscence, often hardly to be traced. The present article seeks to cover the more obvious reminiscences, as well as explicit citations, in the NT books under review.
1. Acts of the Apostles.-The direct quotations in Acts are confined to speeches of the apostles and the story of the Ethiopian eunuch (8:26ff.). They are invariably drawn from the LXX_, even when that Version departs considerably from the Hebrew (as in 7:42f., 15:16f.), and normally introduced by formulAE like ‘It is written (in the book of Psalms),’ ‘This is that which hath been spoken by the prophets,’ ‘For David saith concerning him,’ etc. A number of the citations are exact, viz. 2:25-28 = Psalms 16:8-11, omitting the last clause (identity being secured by reading ἡ καρδία μου with àAD, etc.); 2:34f. = Psalms 110:1; 4:25f. = Psalms 2:1 f.; 8:32f. = Isaiah 53:7 f. (with addition of α ὐ τόν, as in àA, etc.); 23:5 = Exodus 22:28 (in Lucian’s recension); 28:26f. = Isaiah 6:9 f. (apart from a slight difference in the opening formula). Under the same category is virtually to be placed the long citation from Joel 2:28-32 woven into Peter’s speech at Pentecost (2:17-21), the only changes from the LXX_ (àA) being a substitution of the eschatological phrase ἐ ν τα ῖ ς ἐ σχάταις ἡ μέραις (from Isaiah 2:2, Micah 4:1) for the simple μετ ὰ τα ῦ τα of the original, the insertion of the solemn formula of Divine utteran ce λέγει ὁ θεός, and the transposition of the clauses relating to the young men and the old. In close dependen ce on the historical narratives from Genesis to Kings stands Stephen’s long survey of the Divine leading and mission of Israel (7:1ff.), many of the verses being abbreviated, but sufficiently exact, citations of biblical texts (cf. esp. vv. 3, 6f., 26-28, 30-34, 40 with Genesis 12:1 f., Exodus 2:13 f., Exodus 3:2 ff., Exodus 32:1). More deliberate alterations are evident in 1:20, where the general denunciation of wicked men in Psalms 69:25 (amplified by a further reference to Psalms 109:8) is directly pointed against Judas; 2:30, an indirect citation of Psalms 132:11; 3:22f. (abbreviated in 7:37), a conflate of Deuteronomy 18:15-19 and Leviticus 23:29; 3:25, a free blending of the promises addressed to the fathers in Genesis 12:3, etc.; 4:11, a loose citation of the verses (Psalms 118:22 f.) which are fully reproduced and applied to Christ in Matthew 21:42 and parallel texts; 7:42f., where the famous words of Amos 5:25-27 are quoted with considerable changes, the most remarkable being the substitution of ‘Babylon’ for ‘Damascus’ (due either to accident, or, more probably, to a desire to bring the prophecy into line with later events); 7:49f., where the prophet’s great contrast between the heavens of the Most High God and even the noblest temple built by man (Isaiah 66:1 f.) is reproduced with considerable freedom; 13:22, a noteworthy conflate of Psalms 89:20 S 23:1 (or Psalms 72:20), 1 S 13:14, and Isaiah 44:28; other verses from St. Paul’s speech at Antioch, esp. 13:33, 34, 35, 41, 47, which are abbreviated citations of Psalms 2:7, Isaiah 55:3, Psalms 16:10, Habakkuk 1:5, and Isaiah 49:6 respectively; 15:16f., a free rendering of Amos 9:11, introduced by a phrase from Jeremiah 12:15 f., an application to St. Paul himself of the prophetic passage Isaiah 42:7-16 .
In addition to direct citations, however, there are many reminiscences of Scriptural phraseology scattered through Acts. The following may be presented as most suggestive of the original texts: 2:24 (cf. Psalms 18:4 f., Psalms 116:3, Job 39:2 f.); 2:39 (cf. Isaiah 57:19, Joel 2:32, etc.); 2:40 (cf. Deuteronomy 32:5); 4:24, 14:15, 17:24 (cf. Genesis 1:1, Exodus 20:11, etc.); 4:34 (cf. Deuteronomy 15:4); 5:4 (cf. Joshua 24:27, etc.); 8:2 (cf. Genesis 50:10); 8:21 (cf. Deuteronomy 12:12, Psalms 78:37); 10:36 (cf. Psalms 107:20, Isaiah 52:7, etc.); 17:27 (cf. Isaiah 55:6, etc.); 17:29 (cf. Isaiah 40:18 f., Isaiah 46:5); 17:31 (cf. Psalms 9:8, etc.).
Outside of the OT, no texts are ever cited as Scripture. Other sources are, however, clearly before the mind of the writer. Thus 7:21 suggests Wis 11:14, 18:5; 17:29, Wis 13:10; and 17:30, Wis 11:23; Wis 12:2 . The phraseology of 3:14 (cf. 7:52, 22:14) 4:12, 10:4, 17:31 recalls Enoch, xxxviii. 2, xlviii. 7, xcix. 3, and xli. 9 respectively. In St. Stephen’s speech (7:36, 38f.) R. H. Charles finds distinct evidence of dependence on the Assumption of Moses (iii. 11-13). There is here also (7:16) betrayed an acquaintance with extra-canonical Jewish tradition regarding the burial of Joseph’s brethren, as it was afterwards committed to writing in the Book of Jubilees (xlvi. 9 f.). Finally, St. Paul’s great speech at Athens brings classical poetry into the service of Christ. The final clause of 17:28, Το ῦ γ ὰ ρ κα ὶ γένος ἐ σμέν (‘for we are also his offspring’) has long been recognized as an exact quotation from Aratus’ PhAEnomena, line 5 (cf. the similar phrase, ἐ κ σο ῦ γ ὰ ρ γένος ἐ σμέν, from Cleanthes’ Hymn to Jove, line 4). but Rendel Harris has re cently traced the immediately preceding words (‘for in him we live and move and have our being’) to the Minos of the Cretan pcet, Epimenides, from which also Titus 1:12 is drawn, the text being restored as follows:
τύμβον ἐ τεκτ ῄ ναντο σέθεν, κύδιστε, μέγιστε,
Κρ ῆ τες ἀ ε ὶ ψε ῦ σται, κακ ὰ θηρία, γαστέρες ἀ ργαί.
Ἀ λλ ὰ σύ γ ʼ ο ὐ θνήσκεις, ἕ στηκας γ ὰ ρ ζο ὸ ς α ἰ εί,
ἐ ν γ ὰ ρ σο ὶ ζ ῶ μεν κα ὶ κινύμεθ ʼ ἠ δ ὲ κα ὶ ἐ σμέν
(cf. Exp_, 8th ser., iv. [1912] 348 ff.).
2. The Pauline Epistles.-These are peculiarly rich in allusions. Every important doctrinal argument is buttressed by an appeal to Scripture; and even moral counsels are, as a rule, referred to some basal principle of the OT. The Apostle’s ordinary language is likewise steeped in OT phraseology. Here too the LXX_ is the great storehouse of literary reference. ‘More than half of the direct quotations of the OT in the Epistles of St. Paul are taken from the LXX_ without material change’ (H. B. Swete, Introduction to the OT in Greek, Cambridge, 1900, p. 400). In the remaining cases he allows himself considerable freedom, sometimes quoting from memory, or otherwise altering the text for the purpose immediately in view, though occasionally there is evidence of direct translation from the Hebrew.
(a) The Epistle to the Romans is a veritable mine of quotations. Exact reproductions of t he LXX_ are found as follows: 3:4b = Psalms 51:4 b; Psalms 4:3 (cf. v. 5ff.) = Genesis 15:6 f. = Psalms 32:1 f.; 4:17 (πατέρα πολλ ῶ ν ἐ θν ῶ ν τέθεικά σε) is ex ce rpted from Genesis 17:5 (ο ὕ τως ἔ σται τ ὸ σπέρμα σου) from Genesis 15:5 (ο ὐ κ ἐ πιθυμήσεις) from the Decalogue (Exodus 20:17); 8:36 = Psalms 44:22 (ἐ ν Ἰ σα ὰ κ κληθήσεταί σοι σπέρμα) comes from Genesis 21:12 (ὁ μείζων δουλεύσει τ ῷ ἐ λάσσονι) from Genesis 25:23 = Exodus 33:19 = Isaiah 1:9 = Joel 2:32; 10:16 = Isaiah 53:1 a; Isaiah 10:18 = Psalms 19:4; 12:20 = Proverbs 25:21 f. (omitting the last wo rds); 13:9 (ἀ γαπήσεις τ ὸ ν πλησίον σου ὡ ς σεαυτόν) comes from Leviticus 19:18 = Psalms 69:9; 15:9 = Psalms 18:49; 15:10 (ε ὐ φράνθητε, ἔ θνη, μετ ὰ το ῦ λαο ῦ α ὐ το ῦ) from Deuteronomy 32:43 (acc. to certain MSS_) = Psalms 117:1 . The quotation from Habakkuk 2:4 introduced in 1:17 is identical with the LXX_ save for the omission of μού (ct._ Heb. áÌÆàÁîé ֣ ðÈúåÉ, ‘through his faith’); 2:6 likewise differs from Proverbs 24:12 only in the pronouns. The long citation, 3:10-18, opens with a phrase from Ecclesiastes 7:20; the rest is almost an exact reproduction of the LXX_ text of Psalms 14:1-3, though this is really a conflate of various OT passages (Psalms 5:9, Isaiah 59:7 f., and Psalms 36:1) interwoven with the original. 3:20 is clearly introduced as a quotation (from Psalms 143:2), but differs considerably from both the Hebrew and the LXX_; 9:9 is a free, abbreviated reference to Genesis 18:10 a citation from Malachi 1:2 f., with a trifling transposition of the opening words. 9:17 (from Exodus 9:16) shows a distinct approach to the original Hebrew. On the other hand, 9:25f., 27f., 32f. are free reproductions of the thought of Hosea 1:10, Isaiah 10:22 f., Isaiah 28:16 (blended with 8:14) respectively, in the last instance so free as to yield a sense quite contrary to the original. The final clause of 9:33 is repeated i n 10:11 with the addition of π ᾶ ς; while 10:5 is a direct application of Leviticus 18:5 to ‘the righteousness that is of the law.’ The long passage on the nearness and saving power of the Word of God (10:6-9) is another free compound of Deuteronomy 9:4, etc. 10:1 5 (from Isaiah 52:7) gives further evidence of direct use of the Hebrew; 10:19 differs from the LXX_ text of Deuteronomy 32:21 only in the substitution of the personal pronoun ‘you’ for ‘them,’ and 10:20f. from Isaiah 65:1 f. in a slight transposition of words. 11:3f. (from 1 K 19:10ff.), has been altered and transposed under Hebrew influence. 11:8 is a free blend of ideas from Isaiah 29:10, Deuteronomy 29:4, etc. (with traces of Hebrew influence); 11:26f. is also a complex from Isaiah 59:20 f. (in the main) and Psalms 14:7, Isaiah 27:9, etc. 11:9f., again, is a close, though abbreviated, citation of Psalms 69:22 f., and 11:34f. is but slightly altered from Isaiah 40:13 f. (in the fuller reading of àA, etc.). 12:19 (from Deuteronomy 32:35) shows the same approach to the original Hebrew as the Targum of Onkelos. 14:11 is a somewhat free rendering of Isaiah 45:23, with introductory phrase from Isaiah 49:18, or a similar context; 15:12 is an abbreviated reference to Isaiah 11:10 (cf. Isaiah 42:4); and 15:21 is the exact equivalent of Isaiah 52:15, except for the transposition of ὄ ψονται.
(b) A number of these citations are repeated in other Epistles of St. Paul. Thus the fundamental assertion of justification by faith (Romans 1:17 = Habakkuk 2:4) reappears in Galatians 3:11, and the texts Romans 3:20 (from Psalms 143:2) in Galatians 2:16; Romans 4:3 (=Genesis 15:6) in Galatians 3:6; Romans 10:5 (from Leviticus 18:5) in Galatians 3:12; Romans 13:9 b (from Leviticus 19:18) in Galatians 5:14; and Romans 11:34 (from Isaiah 40:13) in 1 Corinthians 2:16 (a different close being here adopted).
Fresh quotations from the OT are found as follows: Galatians 4:27 = Isaiah 54:1; 4:30 = Genesis 21:10 (with the significant change of τ ῆ ς ἐ λευθέρας instead of Ἰ σαάκ); 3:8, a blend of the promises in Genesis 12:3, etc.; 3:10, from Deuteronomy 27:26, with phrase in woven from Deuteronomy 9:11; Deuteronomy 3:13, an abbreviated, and slightly altered, citation from Deuteronomy 21:23, a direct application to Christ of the promise to Abraham and his ‘seed’ (Genesis 12:7, etc.).
The closing phrase of 1 Corinthians 6:16 comes directly from Genesis 2:24 (the whole verse being reproduced in Ephesians 5:31); 9:9 (in reading of àAD, etc.) = Deuteronomy 25:4 (repeated in 1 Timothy 5:18 with transposition of words); 10:7 = Exodus 32:6, a phrase from Psalms 24:1; 15:32 = Isaiah 22:13 f. comes from Isaiah 29:14 with alteration of verb; 1:31 (repeated in 2 Corinthians 10:17) is a free reproduction of Jeremiah 9:23 a very free rendering, perhaps through independent Jewish channels (cf. below), of the ideas in Isaiah 64:4, with suggestions from Isaiah 65:16 or Jeremiah 3:16 is from Job 5:13, under direct influence of the Hebrew; 3:20, from Psalms 94:11, with ‘of the wise’ substituted for ‘of men’ (to make the application more apt); 10:20 (δαιμονίοις κα ὶ ο ὐ θε ῷ θύουσιν) from Deuteronomy 32:17, with a change in the order of words; 14:21, a very free citation, supported by λέγει Κύριος, of Isaiah 28:11 f.; 14:34, Isaiah 14:15 :3, Isaiah 14:4, Isaiah 14:15,45,47, free allusions to Genesis 3:18, Isaiah 53:12, Hosea 6:2, and Genesis 2:7, all addu ced as ‘written’ or Scriptural authorities; 15:27 (cf. Ephesians 1:22, Philippians 3:21), from Psalms 8:6 with direct reference to the Hebrew; 15:54f., a free conflate of Isaiah 25:8 and Hosea 13:14 .
2 Corinthians 4:13 (ἐ πίστευσα δι ὸ ἐ λάλησα) exactly = Psalms 116:10 = Isaiah 49:8 = Psalms 112:9 (cf. 1 Timothy 5:19) = Deuteronomy 19:15 (Luc.); 4:6, a free blend of Genesis 1:2 f., Isaiah 9:1 f., etc.; 6:18, a loose conflate of Ezekiel 37:27 and Leviticus 26:11 f .; Leviticus 6:17, abbreviated from Isaiah 52:11 and Ezekiel 20:34; 6:18, a compound of Jeremiah 31:9, Isaiah 43:6 S 7:8, etc.; 8:15, from Exodus 16:18, with direct approach to the Hebrew; 9:7, a free reproduction of Proverbs 22:9 (cf. Exodus 25:2).
Ephesians 4:8 is from Psalms 68:18, with the ἔ λαβες bo ldly altered to ἔ δωκεν, to make it more applicable to the Giver of good; 4:25, from Zechariah 8:16 with the àÆú more accurately rendered by μετ ὰ το ῦ; 4:26, an excerpt from Psalms 4:4; 5:14, a very free reproduction of Isaiah 60:1 f. (cf. below); 5:16, from Proverbs 23:31 (with ο ἴ ν ῳ for ἐ ν ο ἴ νοις); 6:2f., from the Decalogue (Exodus 20:12), the motive being somewhat altered, and a new clause added to emphasize the element of ‘promise.’
Philippians 1:19 is a literal extract from Job 13:16; and the two ‘seals’ of 2 Timothy 2:19 are free citations of Numbers 16:5 and Isaiah 26:13 respectively. Direct quotations from the OT are not found in Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Titus, or Philemon.
Among the more striking reminiscences may be noted Romans 1:23 (cf. Deuteronomy 4:15-18, Psalms 106:20); 2:5 (cf. Psalms 110:5, Zephaniah 1:18); 3:4a (cf. Psalms 116:11); 3:29f. (cf. Malachi 2:10); 4:11 (cf. Genesis 17:11); 4:13, 16 (cf. Genesis 12:7, etc.); 4:19 (cf. Genesis 17:17, etc.); 4:25, 5:19, 21 (cf. Isaiah 53:12); 5:5 (cf. Psalms 22:4 f., Psalms 25:20); 7:8, 11 (cf. Genesis 2:16 f., Genesis 3:1 ff.); 8:27 (cf. Heb. text of Psalms 7:9); 8:33f. (cf. Isaiah 50:3 f.); 9:20f. (cf. Isaiah 29:16); 11:1f. (cf. Psalms 94:14); 11:16ff. (cf. Jeremiah 11:16); 11:25, 12:16 (cf. Isaiah 5:21, Proverbs 3:7); 12:14 (cf. Psalms 109:28); 12:17 (cf. Proverbs 3:4).
1 Corinthians 1:2 (cf. Joel 2:32); 1:20 (cf. Isaiah 19:11 f., Isaiah 33:18); 3:11 (cf. Isaiah 28:16); 5:7 (cf. Exodus 12:15); 6:2 (cf. Daniel 7:18 ff.); 6:17 (cf. 2 K 18:6); 8:6 (cf. Deuteronomy 4:35, Malachi 2:10, etc.); 9:7 (cf. Deuteronomy 20:6, Proverbs 27:18, etc.); 9:13 (cf. Deuteronomy 18:1 ff., Numbers 18:8 ff.); 10:1ff., from Exodus 13:2 ff. (combined with tradition); 10:22 (cf. Deuteronomy 32:21); 11:7 (cf. Genesis 1:26 f.); 14:25 (cf. Isaiah 45:14, Zechariah 8:23; 15:31 (cf. Psalms 44:22).
2 Corinthians 3:3 (cf. Exodus 31:18, Jeremiah 31:33, Ezekiel 11:19, etc.); 3:7ff. (cf. Exodus 34:29 ff.); 4:11 (cf. Psalms 44:22); 5:10 (cf. Ecclesiastes 12:14); 5:17 (cf. Isaiah 43:18 f.); 6:9 (cf. Psalms 118:17 f.); 6:11 (cf. Psalms 119:32); 7:6 (cf. Isaiah 49:13); 8:21 (cf. Proverbs 3:4); 9:10 (cf. Isaiah 55:10, Hosea 10:12); 11:3 (cf. Genesis 3:4).
Galatians 1:4 (cf. Isaiah 53:12); 1:15f. (cf. Jeremiah 1:5); 3:17 (cf. Exodus 12:40 f.); 3:20 (cf. Malachi 2:10); 6:16 (cf. Psalms 125:5, etc.).
Ephesians 1:20 (cf. Psalms 110:1); 1:22 (cf. Psalms 8:6); 2:13ff. (cf. Isaiah 57:19); 2:19 (cf. Leviticus 25:23); 2:20 (cf. Isaiah 28:16); 4:6 (cf. Deuteronomy 6:4); 4:9f. (cf. Deuteronomy 30:12 ff.); 5:2 (cf. Genesis 8:21, Exodus 29:18, etc.); 5:22ff. (cf. Genesis 3:16); 6:14 (cf. Isaiah 11:5, etc.); 6:15 (cf. Isaiah 52:7); 6:17 (cf. Isaiah 49:2).
Philippians 2:10 f. (cf. Isaiah 45:23); 2:15 (cf. Deuteronomy 32:5); 2:16 (cf. Isaiah 49:4); 3:3 (cf. Jeremiah 9:23 f.); 3:21 (cf. Psalms 8:6); 4:3 (cf. Psalms 69:28, etc.).
Colossians 2:3 (cf. Isaiah 45:3); 2:22 (cf. Isaiah 29:13); 3:1 (cf. Psalms 110:1); 3:10 (cf. Genesis 1:27); 3:18 (cf. Genesis 3:16).
1 Thessalonians 2:4 (cf. Jeremiah 11:20); 2:16 (cf. Genesis 15:18, Deuteronomy 8:20); 4:8 (cf. Ezekiel 11:19 f., Psalms 51:11); 5:8 (cf. Isaiah 59:17); 5:22 (Job 1:1).
2 Thessalonians 1:8 (cf. Exodus 3:2, Isaiah 66:15); 1:9f. (cf. Isaiah 2:10 ff., Psalms 89:8); 1:12 (cf. Isaiah 24:15); 2:4 (cf. Daniel 11:36, etc.); 2:8 (cf. Isaiah 11:4); 2:13 (cf. Deuteronomy 33:12).
1 Timothy 1:17 (cf. Deuteronomy 4:35, etc.); 2:6 (cf. Isaiah 53:4 ff.); 2:11f. (cf. Genesis 3:16); 2:14 (cf. Genesis 3:6 ff.); 6:1 (cf. Isaiah 52:5); 6:15 (cf. Deuteronomy 10:17, Psalms 136:3, Daniel 2:47, etc.).
2 Timothy 4:14 (cf. Psalms 28:4); 4:17 (cf. Daniel 6:20).
Titus 2:5 (cf. Genesis 3:16); 2:14 (cf. Exodus 19:5, Isaiah 53:4 ff., Ezekiel 37:23, etc.).
The Pauline Epistles also show the influence of apocryphal books. A clear instance is found in Romans 12:15, compared with Sir 7:34 (μ ὴ ὑ στέρει ἀ π ὸ κλαιόντων, κα ὶ μετ ὰ πενθούντων πένθησον); cf., furthe r, Romans 2:11 (Sir 32:15 f.) 16:27 (Sir 1:8), 1 Corinthians 6:12 (Sir 37:28), 6:13 (Sir 36:23) 7:13, 36 (Sir 42:9 f.), Colossians 2:3 (Sir 1:25), 1 Thessalonians 4:6 (Sir 5:3). Between Romans and the Wisdom of Solomon there are several close parallels betraying St. Paul’s intimate acquaintance with the latter; cf., especially, Romans 1:18 ff. (Wis 13:1ff; Wis 14:8 f.), 8:18 (Wis 3:4 ff.), 9:19f. (Wis 12:12), 9:21 (Wis 15:7), 9:31 (Wis 2:11), 11:32 (Wis 11:23), 13:10 (Wis 6:18). Of the other Epistles, cf. 1 Corinthians 11:7 (Wis 2:23) 15:45, 47 (Wis 15:11), 2 Corinthians 5:1 ff. (Wis 9:15), Ephesians 1:16, Colossians 1:12 (Wis 5:5), Ephesians 2:12 (Wis 3:18), 6:11ff. (Wis 5:17 ff.), 1 Thessalonians 1:10 (Wis 16:8). To a common use of Wisdom are no doubt to be traced the frequent resemblances between the Epistles and Philo. A considerable list of parallels with the Book of Enoch has been drawn up by Charles, the most obvious being Romans 8:38, Ephesians 1:21, Colossians 1:16 (En. lxi. 10), Romans 9:5, 2 Corinthians 11:31 (En. lxxvii. 1), Philippians 2:10 (En. xlviii. 5), Colossians 2:3 (En. xlvi. 3), 2 Thessalonians 1:7 (En. lxi. 10), 1 Timothy 1:15 (En. xciv. 1). The very free citation, 1 Corinthians 2:9, is referred by Origen and other Church Fathers to the Apocalypse of Elijah, and is actually found in the Latin version (ii. 34); this may well have been the direct source, its ultimate dependence on the OT explaining the formula κάθως γέγραπται (cf. 1 Clem. xxxiv. 8, where the text recurs in almost the same form, though in a different context). Ephesians 5:14 is likewise tra ced by Epiphanius to the Apocalypse of Elijah, though other Fathers give different sources (Isaiah, or an apocryphal work of Jeremiah); it may, however, be but a loose rendering of Isaiah 60:1 f. (cf. above). Further acquaintance with Jewish tradition-probably derived from the actual Book of Jannes and Jambres mentioned by Origen (on Matthew 27:9)-is presupposed in the reference to the withstanding of Moses (2 Timothy 3:8). Various phrases recall the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: e.g. Romans 1:32 (Asher, vi. 2) 12:21 (Benj. iv. 3), 2 Corinthians 7:10 (Gad, v. 7), 1 Thessalonians 2:16 (Levi, vi. 11). There are also two direct citations of classical texts: 1 Corinthians 15:33 (‘evil communications corrupt good manners’) from Menander’s Thais-ultimately perhaps from a lost play of Euripides (cf. Socrates, HE_ iii. 16)-and the verse from the ‘prophet’ of the Cretans (Titus 1:12), an exce rpt from the Minos of Epimenides already alluded to (cf. Acts 17:28). Both were apparently common tags, Κρ ῆ τες ἀ ε ὶ ψε ῦ σται being introdu ced as a familiar quotation in Callimachus, ad Jovem, line 8. The Apostle may thus have received them from floating tradition, instead of direct acquaintance with the texts. The analogies with stoical writings and the mystery-religions, at all events, show the influence of the Zeitgeist rather than first-hand study of the literature (cf. H. A. A. Kennedy, St. Paul and the Mystery-Religions, 1913).
The Apostle reveals in his letters a varied knowledge of Christian tradition and even words and deeds of Jesus, afterwards embodied in the Gospels. Thus in 1 Corinthians 7:10 (on divorce) he contrasts his own advice with definite instructions of our Lord, which may be compared with Matthew 5:32 and parallel passages. His counsel to remain unmarried because of the coming distress (1 Corinthians 7:25 ff.) recalls Matthew 24:19, etc. The Christian principle of living by the gospel (1 Corinthians 9:14) is directly referred to the Master’s ordinance (cf. Matthew 10:10, Luke 10:7). The words of institution at the Lord’s Supper (1 Corinthians 11:23 ff.) are in close harmony with Matthew 26:26 ff. and parallel passages, and belong undoubtedly to common tradition. Other reminiscences of the Gospels (or their sources) are found in 1 Corinthians 11:19 (cf. Matthew 10:34, etc.); 1 Corinthians 13:2 (cf. Matthew 17:20, etc.); 2 Corinthians 1:17 (cf. Matthew 5:37); Galatians 5:14 (cf. Matthew 22:39 f., etc.); 1 Thessalonians 2:15 f. (cf. Matthew 23:31 f.); 1 Thessalonians 4:8 (cf. Luke 10:16); 1 Thessalonians 4:16 f. (cf. Matthew 24:30 f.); 1 Thessalonians 5:1 ff. (cf. Matthew 24:36 ff.).
3. The Epistle to the Hebrews.-This Epistle equals Romans in its dependence on the OT. It is, indeed, ‘in great part a catena of quotations’ (Swete, p. 402). A considerable number are either wholly or virtually exact: 1:5a (5:5) = Psalms 2:7 b = 2 S 7:14; 1:6b = Deuteronomy 32:43 (in Lucian’s recension); 1:8b = LXX_ addition to Psalms 45:6 f. (with one or two changes, absent from certain MSS_); 1:10-12 = Psalms 102:25-27 (with slight textual differences); 1:13 = Psalms 110:1 (with addition in àAD, etc.) = Psalms 8:4-6; 2:13b = Isaiah 8:18 (individual verses repeated in 3:15, 4:3, 5, 7) = Psalms 95:7-11 (with slight textual differences, not found in several MSS_); 4:4 (cf. 4:10) = Genesis 2:2 (Luc.); 5:6 (cf. 7:17 and, wit h variations, 5:10, 6:20, 7:11, 21) = Psalms 110:4; 10:30b = Deuteronomy 32:35 = Psalms 118:6 . Of the remaining citations, 1:7 = Psalms 104:4, with πυρ ὸ ς φλόγα for π ῦ ρ φλέγον (A: πυρ ὸ ς φλέγα) = Heb. àÅùÑ ìÉäÅè; 2:12 = Psalms 22:22, with ἀ παγγελ ῶ for διηγήσομαι (Heb. àÂñÇôÌÀãÈä); 2:13a = Isaiah 8:17, with transposition of words; 6:13f., from Genesis 22:16 f., exact, but abbreviated; 7:1-10, a historica l survey depending, often literally, on Genesis 14:17 = Exodus 25:40, with δειχθέντα for δεδειγμένον; 8:8-12 (abbreviated, and somewhat al tered, in 10:16f.), from Jeremiah 31:31-34, with certain alterations pointing the prophecy directly to Christ; 9:20 (cf. 10:29, 13:20), from Exodus 24:8, with changes, in part suggested by the words of institution (cf. Matthew 26:26 ff., etc.); 10:5-7 (repeated with changes in v. 8f.), from Psalms 40:6-8, with accidental and other alterations; 10:30a, from Deuteronomy 32:35, in the same form as in Romans 12:19; 10:37, from Habakkuk 2:3 f., the principle of justification repeated as in Romans 1:17 (the two instances thus pointing to some common original, either in tradition, or in a written collection of Messianic prophecies), and a ὁ inserted before ἐ ρχόμενος to give the text a still clearer Messianic referen ce; 11:4ff., the roll-call of heroes, drawn from the historical books from Gen. onwards, often with close dependence on the texts (cf. vv. 5, 18, 21 with Genesis 5:24 respectively); 12:5f. (detailed application in vv. 7-11), from Proverbs 3:11 f., with verbal changes due probably to textual transmission; 12:20, a free reproduction of Exodus 19:13, probably from memory; 12:21, from Deuteronomy 9:19, with addition of κα ὶ ἔ ντρομος; 12:26, from Haggai 2:6, verbally altered to emphasize the argument; 12:29, from Deuteronomy 4:24, with γάρ added in harmony with Heb. ëÌÄé; 13:5, from Deuteronomy 31:6, changed into the form of a direct quotation by the use of the first person; 13:20, a complex of phrases from Isaiah 63:11 and Jeremiah 32:40, etc.
Among reminiscences of OT texts may be given 1:3 (cf. Psalms 110:1); 3:2, 5 (cf. Numbers 12:7); 3:17 (cf. Numbers 14:29 f.); 6:8 (cf. Genesis 3:17 f.); 6:19, 10:20 (cf. Exodus 26:33, Leviticus 16:2); 8:1, 10:12f., 12:2 (cf. Psalms 110:1); 8:2 (cf. Numbers 24:6); 9:2ff. (cf. Exodus 26:1 ff.); 9:28 (cf. Isaiah 53:12); 10:27 (cf. Isaiah 26:11); 10:28 (cf. Deuteronomy 17:6); 12:12 (cf. Isaiah 35:3, Sir 25:23); 12:13 (cf. Proverbs 4:26); 12:15 (cf. Deuteronomy 29:18); 12:16 (cf. Genesis 25:33); 12:17 (cf. Genesis 27:38); 12:18ff. (cf. Exodus 19:16 ff.); 13:2 (cf. Genesis 18:3 ff.); 13:11 (cf. Leviticus 16:27); 13:15 (cf. Psalms 50:14, Hosea 14:3).
In 1:3 we have another clear mark of the influence of Wis. (7:25f.). The description of the martyrdoms in 11:35f. probably derives certain elements from 1Ma 9:26, 2Ma 6:10ff; 2Ma 7:1 ff., etc., as well as the tradition of Isaiah’s death by sawing (Ascension of Isaiah, v. 11-14). A few passages recall the Book of Enoch, e.g. iv. 13 (En. ix. 5); 11:10 (En. xc. 29). A suggestion of the ‘words of institution’ has been found in 9:20, while the reference to the Master’s ‘strong crying and tears’ (5:7) recalls the scene in Gethsemane (cf. Matthew 26:36 ff.), though known to the writer only from tradition. In Hebrews there is no trace of classical literature.
4. The Catholic Epistles
(a) James.-The practical character of James necessitates less reliance on OT authority. Of direct quotations in his Epistle there are but six, 2:8, 23 and 4:6 being virtually exact reproductions of the LXX_ text of Leviticus 19:18, Genesis 15:6, and Proverbs 3:34 respectively, 2:11 an original version of the Decalogue (Exodus 20:13), 5:20 a rendering of Proverbs 10:12 with direct dependence on the Hebrew (though here possibly introduced from an intermediate source), and 4:5 a reference to some unknown passage definitely recognized as ‘Scripture.’ In addition there are various reminiscences of OT and apocryphal books: e.g. 1:9f. (cf. Jeremiah 9:23); 1:10f. (cf. Isaiah 40:6 f.); 1:19 (cf.
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